Introduction
Improving outcomes and preserving cardiac tissue in patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) represents one of the most challenging unmet medical needs in cardiovascular care to date.
The gold standard in treating AMI is the timely restoration of myocardial blood flow to minimize ischemic injury, but it comes at a price: Reperfusion injury. Myocardial ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) injury manifests itself in reperfusion arrhythmia, myocardial stunning, microvascular obstructions, and cardiomyocyte cell death, responsible for up to 50% of the final infarct size [
59]. Unfortunately, most therapeutic interventions directed against myocardial I/R injury have failed to show benefits in clinical trials to date [
9,
46]. A rare exception may be P-selectin antagonism in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention for non-ST-segment elevation MI, which blunted post-procedural troponin and creatine kinase-myocardial band rises in blood as surrogates of reduced myocardial damage [
53], but clinical endpoints have not been tested in a large follow-up trial.
The formation of platelet–leukocyte complexes (PLC) largely depends on the binding of platelet-derived P-selectin to leukocyte-derived P-selectin glycoprotein ligand 1 (PSGL-1) [
14,
27,
42,
46]. In platelets, P-selectin is stored intracellularly in alpha granules and is transferred to the cell surface upon platelet activation [
39]. Increased frequencies of circulating PLC, platelet–monocyte (PMC) and platelet–neutrophil complexes (PNC) in particular, have been recorded in patients with AMI or unstable angina [
18,
38,
43]. Elevated numbers of circulating PMC represent early markers of AMI [
38]. Their frequencies correlate with troponin levels [
60] and predict future cardiovascular events within 2 years following AMI [
61]. Experimental studies, ex vivo
, suggest that platelet binding to monocytes and neutrophils can stimulate proinflammatory responses [
11,
14] and facilitate microvascular obstructions in vivo [
22,
24,
40]. Taken together, PLC are postulated to contribute directly to myocardial I/R injury, and to represent a therapeutic target [
25,
32]. In this study, we challenge the hypothesis of a direct causal involvement of PLC in myocardial I/R injury in vivo
.
Methods
Animals
Male C57BL/6J (WT) and P-selectin-deficient B6;129S7-Selptm1Bay/J (KO) mice were provided by the Jackson Laboratories (Maine, USA). Eight-week-old mice from both genotypes were lethally irradiated and reconstituted with 107 WT or KO bone marrow cells, respectively. Hereby, we created three different types of bone marrow chimeras: WT in WT (WTWT), KO in WT (KOWT), and WT in KO (WTKO). Euthanasia was performed by CO2 inhalation. All animal procedures were approved by the Animal Care Committee of the University Freiburg and regional councils.
Blood collection and cell counts
Murine blood was obtained by facial vein puncture and collected in 10 µL Enoxaparin per 100 µL blood. Larger volumes were gained after euthanasia with CO2 and cardiac cannulation. Leukocytes were counted manually, using a Neubauer counting chamber and diluting with red blood cell lysis buffer 1:20 (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). Standardized blood counts for leukocytes, platelets, and erythrocytes were performed by the University Central Laboratory.
Plasma
For plasma generation, blood was centrifuged in two steps at 1500×g at room temperature for 5 min, collecting the supernatant. Plasma was immediately shock frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at − 20 °C until further processing.
Platelet-rich plasma (PRP)
Murine blood was diluted 1:1 with Tyrode’s buffer and 0.3% enoxaparin, centrifuged, and the supernatant transferred the supernatant (PRP) to a new reaction tube. PRP was always kept at 37 °C. For measuring surface marker expression, PRP was stimulated with 10 µL 200 µM adenosine diphosphate (ADP) (Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany) for 30 min and analyzed by flow cytometry.
Flow cytometry
Heparinized blood was diluted 1:6 with PBS. Diluted blood was used for antibody staining. After 15 min of incubation at 37 °C, blood was lysed and fixed with BD® Lysis/Fix™ (BD Bioscience, Becton Dickinson, Heidelberg, Germany).
Heart tissues were enzymatically digested [collagenases I and IX, hyaluronidase as well as DNAse I (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Missouri, USA)] and heart cell suspensions are processed through a 40 µm strainer using PBS/ 0.5% BSA/1% FCS. Cells were stained with specific antibodies. For endothelial cell isolation, we minced aortas and digested them with collagenase IV (Worthington Biochemical Corporation, Lakewood, NJ, USA) and DNAse I (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Missouri, USA). Antibodies used are listed in Supplemental Table 1. For ROS detection, blood cells were incubated with 2′,7′-dichlorofluorescin diacetate (DCFDA, Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany) prior to antibody staining.
Flow cytometry analysis was performed with a BD FACS Canto II (BD Bioscience, San Diego, CA, USA).
Imaging flow cytometry
Imaging flow cytometry analysis of murine blood samples was performed at the Image Stream Core Facility (Tübingen, Germany) with an Imagestream® X Mark II Imaging Flow Cytometer (Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany). In this approach, fluorescent antibody surface staining is combined with intracellular phalloidin staining of actin following cell permeabilization with 0.1% Triton X (both obtained from Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany).
Antibodies used are listed in the supplemental methods (Supplemental Table 1).
Histology
The infarcted areas of isolated hearts were embedded in TissueTek® O.C.T.™ (OCT) (Sakura Fintek, Tokyo, Japan), frozen at − 20 °C and cut into 4 µm sections. Neutrophils were identified by anti-Ly6G rat anti-mouse antibody binding (BD, New Jersey, USA). For overall tissue, morphology hematoxylin and eosin staining was performed.
High-sensitive troponin T (hsTnT) levels
Plasma was diluted 1:15 with PBS, and hsTnT levels were determined by automated electrochemiluminescence analysis according to the detailed protocol from Andrassy et al. [
1].
Myocardial ischemia–reperfusion (I/R) injury
In anesthetized mice, the left anterior descending (LAD) coronary vessel was obstructed for 35 min and then reperfused again. Sham operated mice underwent only thoracotomy followed by 35 min of anesthesia [buprenorphine (0.1 mg/kg) and isoflurane inhalation]. 24 h after I/R, mice were euthanized, hearts were flushed with isotonic saline and excised for further processing. Postoperative analgesia was performed with buprenorphine (0.1 mg/kg) subcutaneously every 6–8 h.
Echocardiography
Transthoracic echocardiography was performed on isoflurane anesthetized mice with a Vevo 3100 ultrasound device with an MX550D linear probe (Visualsonics, Toronto, Canada). Left-ventricular ejection fraction was measured using the Simpson method.
Peritonitis model
For sterile peritonitis, mice were injected with 2 mL 4% thioglycollate intraperitoneally (i.p.) (Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany). After 4 h, mice were euthanized, and peritoneal lavage was performed by injecting and aspirating 5 mL PBS. Cells were washed, counted (Neubauer counting chamber), and stained for flow cytometry analysis.
Intravital microscopy
Mice were stimulated by injecting 10 g/kg tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) i.p. 4 h prior to intravital microscopy. Following ketamine (100 mg/kg) and xylazine (100 mg/kg) anesthesia and rhodamine injection (i.p.), we exposed the mesenteric venules and recorded up to 12 30 s clips per mouse.
Rhodamine intravital microscopy was performed with a Axiotech vario 100 HD microscope, a AxioCam Mrm digital camera, and Colibri 2 light source (all Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany).
For two-color intravital microscopy, mice were injected intravenously with X488/anti-GPIbβ (emfret Analytics, Eibelstadt, Germany) to label platelets and with anti-Gr1-PE (Bio Legend) to label neutrophils and classical monocytes 15 min prior to image recording. Analysis was performed with a Nikon® FN-S2N fluorescence microscope, Hamamatsu Orca-05G digital camera and Nikon Intenslight C-HGFIE.
TTC
After excision of the heart and proximal aorta, the LAD was occluded again at the site of the suture. The hearts were perfused with Monolight blue 5% followed by further rinsing with 0.9% NaCl and rapid freezing. Frozen hearts were sliced and incubated for 5 min at 37 °C in 2,3,5-triphenyl-tetrazolium chloride (TTC). After 24 h at 4 °C, heart slices were photo-documented and analyzed for area at risk (AAR) and infarct area.
qRT-PCR
Frozen infarcted heart tissue was defrosted, homogenized, and processed according to the instructions of the Qiagen RNeasy® Mini Kit (Qiagen, Düsseldorf, Germany). Hereby generated RNA was further transcribed into cDNA using the High-Capacity cDNA Reverse Transcription Kit (ThermoFisher Scientific Inc., Waltham, USA) according to the manufacturer's instructions. cDNA transcription was performed with a Oviation PicoSL WTA V2 System (NuGEN, San Carlos, CA, USA). qRT-PCR was performed using Taq-Man probes and a CFX96 Touch Real-Time PCR System (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA, USA). Taq-Man probes used are listed in supplemental Table 2. Target gene expression levels were calculated using the 2-ΔΔCT method with β-actin as the house keeping gene. Results per mouse and target gene were interpreted and visualized relative to mean target gene expression levels in WTWT chimeras.
Statistical analysis
Results are shown as Mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM). Results are declared as significant with a p value ≤ 0.05. The choice of statistical calculation method was based on criteria such as normal distribution and the number of groups to be compared. When comparing two normally distributed groups with mutually independent measurements, the unpaired t test (also Student’s t test) was applied. Multiple t test was used to compare the PCR data. Due to the multiple testing, a Bonferroni correction was applied. If there were more than two groups to be compared with measurements that were independent of each other, statistical significance was tested with the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Holm–Sidak posthoc testing. The Kruskal–Wallis test was used as a non-parametric test with Dunns post hoc testing. Statistical analysis was performed using Excel 2010 (Microsoft, Redmond, Washington, USA) and Prism 6 (GraphPad Software, San Diego, California, USA). When considering more than one influencing variable, statistical significance was tested using the two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), assuming a normal distribution. Sidak's post hoc test was also applied. Bivariate correlations of PMC or PNC levels with plasma troponin levels were calculated using GraphPad Software 2021 (San Diego, CA, USA).
Discussion
Associations of elevated circulating PLCs with myocardial infarct size and adverse long-term outcomes in patients have led to the hypothesis that these two phenomena are causally related in the sense that PLC aggravate cardiac injury [
47,
60,
61]. Experimental studies in the past have lent support to this hypothesis.
For instance, simultaneous infusion of neutrophils and platelets during reperfusion of ischemic isolated guinea pig and rat hearts impaired cardiac function [
20,
29,
49]. In line, blocking PNC-formation attenuated these adverse cardiac effects [
21]. Specifically, blocking P-selectin–P-selectin glycoprotein ligand 1 (PSGL 1) interaction reduced PLC formation, neutrophil infiltration and experimental myocardial ischemia reperfusion injury [
5,
30,
41]. However, in contrast to our bone marrow chimera model, these approaches did not selectively target platelet-derived P-selectin, and thus affected endothelial P-selectin-mediated leukocyte rolling, directly.
At the site of experimental vascular injury, platelets cover the area of endothelial denudation, and platelet-derived P-selectin can imitate endothelial-derived P-selectin’s role to capture PSGL-1 expressing leukocytes and facilitate monocyte/macrophage accumulation in the neointima [
33]. Similar processes may be at play during atherogenesis, when P-selectin deficiency in platelets partially protects from atherosclerotic plaque development in ApoE-deficient mice, whereas endothelial P-selectin deficiency has a more profound atheroprotective effect [
8]. In myocardial infarction, however, myocardial injury develops in a large ischemic area distal to the site of an occluding coronary artery plaque, and leukocyte infiltration into the infarct tissue occurs via post-capillary venules distinct from arterial recruitment in atherosclerosis [
15,
35]. Hence, mesenteric venule intravital microscopy and sterile peritonitis are valid complementary models for gaining insight into inflammatory cell recruitment into infarct tissue. In our work, intravital microscopy, peritoneal lavage analysis, and flow cytometric or immunohistochemical staining of myocardial infarct tissue showed unanimously that loss of platelet P-selectin neither slowed cell recruitment nor protected from myocardial ischemia and reperfusion injury despite a significant reduction in circulating, rolling, and tissue infiltrating PLC. In line, Rosenkranz and colleagues, using P-selectin-deficient bone marrow chimeras, reported similar kidney infiltrating leukocyte counts in a murine model of glomerulonephritis [
45].
Our findings suggest a reverse causation between PLC and myocardial ischemia and reperfusion injury. Larger infarcts, as indicated by the surrogate parameter cardiac troponin, lead to the release of tissue injury related danger signals that activate platelets. Upon activation, platelets expose P-selectin forming complexes with neutrophils and monocytes. To this effect, PLC represents a biomarker of cardiac injury rather than a culprit.
Observational studies documented that elevated PLC correlate with inadequate reperfusion post-STEMI-percutaneous coronary intervention due to microvascular obstructions as assessed by reduced Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction (TIMI) flow and myocardial blush grade [
4,
44]. A causal relationship, however, has not been established experimentally. While our study clearly indicates that PLC do not contribute to myocardial ischemia and reperfusion injury, the murine transient LAD ligation model may not fully recapitulate all pathophysiological aspects of interventional revascularization in STEMI patients, including those that lead to microvascular obstructions. Moreover, our study does not dispute a critical role of platelets in fostering leukocyte activation and extravasation by other means than P-selectin-dependent PLC formation, or in different disease contexts [
48].
The biological role of PLC formation upon danger signal recognition may be immunologic. Platelets can scavenge, immobilize, and aggregate bacteria, and thus facilitate their clearance and destruction through phagocytes and neutrophil extracellular trap formation [
50].
Platelets appear to circulate in the bloodstream as “surveillance drones” to be the first cellular actors on site in the context of vascular injury or tissue inflammation [
31]. Healthy endothelium prevents platelet activation and aggregation, in part via nitric oxide and prostacyclin secretion. In the context of endothelial injury and activation, these inhibitory effects are compromised and platelets bind to subendothelial extracellular matrix via direct platelet GP VI–collagen interaction or von-Willebrand factor (vWF)-mediated binding to platelet GP Ib/IX/V surface complex [
26,
28]. In addition, multiple soluble damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) similar to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) activate platelets via pattern recognition receptors (Toll-like receptors, NOD-like receptors, and receptor for advanced glycation end products) [
2,
13,
17,
51,
54]. Stimulated platelets activate surface integrins and release chemokines and serotonin from granules [
54]. Platelet serotonin, in turn, stimulates neutrophil rolling and adhesion to the endothelium and neutrophil activation, including increased PNC formation [
12,
36]. Platelet-secreted chemokines include CXCL1, platelet factor 4 (PF4/CXCL4), macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP) 1 alpha (alias CCL3), and RANTES (alias CCL5), and attract leukocytes to sites of inflammation and injury, where platelets were activated [
6,
10,
19,
54]. Beyond P-selectin–PSGL-1 interaction, platelet GPIb can bind to leukocyte integrin Mac-1, directly. GPIb–Mac-1 interaction induced tissue factor expression in monocytes [
55], which was not affected by platelet P-selectin deficiency and impaired PLC formation in KOWT compared to WTWT chimeras in our study (data not shown).
Both platelet-released factors and PLC formation were reported to activate leukocyte integrins [
23,
56,
57]. Integrin surface expression levels on monocytes and neutrophils in mice lacking P-selectin on platelets were not altered in our experiments, although the flow cytometry antibodies may not adequately distinguish between different integrin activation statuses. Functionally, however, integrin-dependent leukocyte rolling and adhesion were not impaired in KOWT mice lacking platelet-derived P-selectin. Having said this, soluble P-selectin, which is mainly shed from activated endothelium, can still activate leukocytes via PSGL-1 [
37,
52,
58] without requiring platelet-derived P-selectin and PLC formation. In line, soluble P-selectin levels were comparable in KOWT and WTWT chimeras in our study, confirming that the endothelium is the major source of soluble P-selectin even post-myocardial infarction.
Taken together, our work shows that PLC form in response to myocardial ischemia and reperfusion injury without influencing myocardial injury in return. PLC formation itself appears dispensable for key platelet and leukocyte functions in the context of myocardial injury.