Introduction
Materials and Methods
Study design and setting
Populations
Sample size determination and sampling technique
Data collection methods and tools
Data processing and analysis
Results
Socio-demographic characteristics
Variables | Cases (n = 110) | Controls (n = 220) | p-value |
---|---|---|---|
Frequency (%) | Frequency (%) | ||
Age of Mothers | |||
< 24 | 39(35.45%) | 72(32.73%) | 0.001* |
25–29 | 31(28.18%) | 103(46.82%) | |
> 30 | 40(36.36%) | 45(20.45%) | |
Residence | |||
Rural | 55(50%) | 57(25.91%) | 0.001* |
Urban | 55(50%) | 163(74.09%) | |
Educational level | |||
No formal education | 46(41.82%) | 74(33.64%) | 0.001* |
Primary school | 41(37.27%) | 53(24.09%) | |
Secondary school | 12(11%) | 29(13.18%) | |
Above secondary school | 11(10%) | 64(29.09%) | |
Religion | |||
Orthodox | 12(11%) | 37(16.82%) | 0.243 |
Protestant | 55(50%) | 112(50.91%) | |
Muslim | 37(33.64%) | 62(28.18%) | |
Catholic | 6(5.45%) | 6(2.73%) | |
Others1 | 0 | 3(1.36%) | |
Ethnicity | |||
Sidama | 40(36.36%) | 78(35.45%) | 0.127 |
Oromo | 42(38.18%) | 64(29.09%) | |
Amhara | 12(11%) | 19(8.63%) | |
Wolayta | 7(6.36%) | 25(11.36%) | |
Others2 | 9(8.18%) | 34(15.45%) | |
Occupation | |||
Government Employee | 28(25.45%) | 72(32.73%) | 0.384 |
Housewife | 59(53.64%) | 109(49.55%) | |
Others3 | 23(20.91%) | 39(17.73%) | |
Has Refrigerator No | 87(70.09%) | 116(52.73%) | 0.001 |
Yes | 23(20.91%) | 104(47.27%) | |
Animal breeding | |||
No | 66(60%) | 164(74.55%) | 0.007 |
Yes | 44(40%) | 56(25.45%) | |
Marital status | |||
Married | 108(98.18%) | 217(98.64%) | 0.75 |
Others4 | 2(1.82%) | 3(1.36%) |
Maternal obstetric and child characteristics
Variables | Cases(n = 110) | Controls(n = 220) | p-value |
---|---|---|---|
Frequency (%) | Frequency (%) | ||
Gestational age (in weeks) | |||
< 37 | 41(37.27%) | 53(24.1%) | 0.012* |
≥ 37 | 69(62.73%) | 167(75.9%) | |
Maternal Age at first birth | |||
< 18 | 40(36.36%) | 35(15.91%) | 0.001* |
19–24 | 51(46.36%) | 124(56.36%) | |
25–35 | 19(17.27%) | 61(27.73%) | |
Parity | |||
Primi-para | 36(32.73%) | 82(37.27%) | 0.417 |
Parous | 74(67.23%) | 138(62.73%) | |
Birth interval in years (n = 72 case and 140 controls) | |||
< 2 | 39(54.17%) | 63(45%) | 0.9 |
≥ 2 | 33(45.83%) | 77(55%) | |
ANC during the currentpregnancy | |||
< 4 visits | 71(64.55%) | 77(35%) | 0.032* |
4 or more visits | 39(35.45%) | 143(65%) | |
Dietary counseling inrecent pregnancy | |||
No | 81(73.64%) | 100(45.45%) | 0.001* |
Yes | 29(26.36%) | 120(54.55%) | |
Use of iron tablets inrecent pregnancy | |||
No | 63(57.27%) | 51(23.18%) | 0.001* |
Yes | 47(42.73%) | 169(76.82%) | |
Gestational Age (in months) at 1st ANC visit (case = 79, controls = 217) | |||
1–3 | 18(70.89%) | 59(27.19%) | 0.713 |
4–6 | 56(28.1%) | 143(66%) | |
7–9 | 5(6.33%) | 15(6.91%) | |
Presence of pregnancy complications | |||
No | 67(60.91%) | 185(84.09%) | 0.001* |
Yes | 43(39.09%) | 35(%15.91%) | |
Sex of the newborn | |||
Female | 46(41.82) | 91(41.36) | 0.885 |
Male | 64(58.18%) | 129(58.64%) |
Nutrition related characteristics of the study participants
Variable | Cases (%) | Controls (%) | P-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Dietary counseling for this pregnancy | Yes | 29(26.36%) | 120(54.55%) | < 0.001* |
No | 81(73.64%) | 100(45.45%) | ||
Iron tablets use | Yes | 47(42.73%) | 169(76.82%) | < 0.001* |
No | 63(57.27%) | 51(23.18%) | ||
Mid upper arm circumference | ≤220 | 35(31.82%) | 27(12.27%) | < 0.001* |
> 220 | 75(68.18%) | 193(87.73%) | ||
Household food security | Food secure | 106(96.36%) | 214(97.27%) | 0.65 |
Food insecure | 4(3.64%) | 6(2.73%) |
Variables | Cases (=110) | Controls (n = 220) | COR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) | p-value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age of mother | |||||
Less than 19 | 40 | 35 | 0.61(0.34,1.09) | 0.41(0.18,0.93) | – |
20–24 | 51 | 124 | 0.34(0.19,0.61) | 0.49(0.24, 1.05 | – |
30–40 | 19 | 61 | 1r | 1r | |
Gestational Age (in weeks) | |||||
< 37 | 41 | 53 | 1.87(1.14,3.07) | 1.79(0.98, 3.28) | – |
≥ 37 | 69 | 167 | 1r | 1r | – |
Residence | |||||
Rural | 55 | 57 | 2.86(1.77, 4.62) | 1.3(0.66, 2.6) | – |
Urban | 55 | 163 | 1r | r | |
Level of Education | |||||
Not Educated | 46 | 74 | 3.62(1.73, 7.56) | 0.94(0.34, 2.62) | – |
Primary | 41 | 53 | 4.5(2.1, 9.6) | 1.72 (0.68, 4.37) | – |
Secondary school | 12 | 29 | 2.4 (0.95, 6.1) | 1.4 (0.4, 4.6) | |
Above secondary School | 11 | 64 | 1r | 1r | |
Presence of pregnancy complications | |||||
No | 67 | 185 | 1r | 1r | |
Yes | 43 | 35 | 3.39 (2.0, 5.74) | 2.96 (1.55, 5.64)* | 0.001 |
Presence of Refrigerator | |||||
No | 87 | 116 | 3.39 (2.0, 5.76) | 1.75(.87, 3.5) | |
Yes | 23 | 104 | 1r | 1r | |
Presence of Animal breeding | |||||
No | 66 | 164 | 0.5 (0.32, 0.83) | 0.7 (0.35, 1.43) | |
Yes | 44 | 56 | 1r | 1r | |
Dietary counseling during pregnancy | |||||
No | 81 | 100 | 3.35 (2.0, 5.5) | 2.37 (1.3, 4.34)* | 0.005 |
Yes | 29 | 120 | 1r | 1r | |
Use of iron tablets during pregnancy | |||||
No | 63 | 51 | 4.4 (2.72, 7.26) | 2.89 (1.58, 5.29)* | 0.001 |
Yes | 47 | 169 | 1r | 1r | |
Mid upper arm circumference (mm) | |||||
< 220 | 35 | 27 | 3.34 (1.89,5.89) | 2.9 (1.47, 5.81)* | 0.002 |
≥ 220 | 75 | 193 | 1r | 1r |