Obesity, insulin resistance and sedentariness
A sedentary lifestyle, obesity and insulin resistance (IR) trigger MetS. The World Health Organization indicates that IR is the common antecedent to all manifestations of MetS [
15,
16,
32,
81,
82]; other studies suggest that obesity is the trigger of MetS [
10,
83]. Considering that obesity and IR are closely related and most often occur together, it is correct to assume that both play an essential role in the pathogenesis of MetS and that neither factor is sufficient by itself to determine all the metabolic complications. The Bogalusa Heart Study revealed that both childhood obesity and IR can predict adult MetS development, but after adjustment for insulin and BMI respectively, only obesity maintained a significant association [
84]. Two different obesity-associated metabolic conditions, namely metabolically healthy obese (MHO) and metabolic unhealthy obese (MUO) have been described in children as well as in adults [
85]. An MHO phenotype during childhood is more likely to be retained during adulthood [
86,
87]. Furthermore, the conversion of MHO children to MUO is determined by the loss of insulin sensitivity [
88,
89], thus corroborating the hypothesis that MetS begins with obesity but requires IR to develop [
90]. It is important to note that a physiological and transient IR occurs during pubertal development, and it could accelerate the onset of MetS in a pre-existing state of obesity-dependent IR [
16,
35]. The causal link between obesity and IR lies in the elevated levels of proinflammatory adipokines, such as IL-6 and TNF-α, released by adipose tissue following fat accumulation, which worsens tissue responses to insulin, thus resulting in T2D, dyslipidemia and hypertension [
29,
35,
91‐
94]. Sedentariness and high-fat diet take part in the development of obesity while elevated consumption of fructose and branched-chain amino acids contributes to a state of IR through the serine phosphorylation of the insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1) and the resulting decrease in hepatic insulin sensitivity [
95‐
97]. In children, the most common metabolic alterations are obesity and dyslipidemia with low HDL levels, whereas hypertension and glucose intolerance develop later in life and are typical of adult MetS [
98,
99]. Obesity and dyslipidemia are consequences of poor dietary habits, whereas the age-specific decrease in HDL levels could be due to an androgen-sensitive increase in hepatic lipase activity and the consequent increase of HDL catabolism [
100].
Vitamin D deficiency, sleep disturbances and hypercortisolism
Vitamin D deficiency in youth has been associated with the presence of MetS [
101]; emerging evidence suggests that adequate vitamin D levels may offer potential protection against the onset of metabolic complications. This includes fostering improved glycemic control, enhancing vascular function and regeneration, and reducing reactive oxygen species, thereby mitigating the risk of T2D and cardiovascular events [
102,
103]. Despite these promising indications, a recent meta-analysis examining the impact of vitamin D supplementation in overweight and obese children revealed that elevated 25(OH)D levels did not translate into clinically significant outcomes [
104]. As a result, the controversy surrounding the effectiveness of supplementation treatment persists.
Moreover, sleep disturbances, namely insufficient sleep, poor sleep quality and/or insomnia and obstructive sleep apnea, induce cortisol production by the adrenal cortex, which leads to a higher caloric intake and fat accumulation in children [
32,
35,
105‐
107]. A higher obstructive sleep apnea severity [
108], alongside hypercortisolism [
109], is also associated with a lower glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) response to a glucose challenge. This is because GLP-1 production is under circadian rhythm control and can be altered in the presence of sleep disturbances [
15,
17,
28,
110].
Hypercortisolism, a condition typically associated with Cushing’s Syndrome (CS), can also arise in other disorders, including those with suboptimal control of diabetes and severe obesity [
111]. These patients, when exhibiting symptoms congruent with CS, may be alternatively diagnosed with physiological hypercortisolism or pseudo-CS. It is important to note that the clinical presentations of these cases of physiological hypercortisolism often lack the cutaneous (predisposition to bruising, skin thinning, and fragility) or muscular (proximal muscle atrophy and weakness) hallmarks of CS. During the diagnostic process for CS, it’s essential to methodically exclude these differential diagnoses or disorders [
112].
Systemic and tissue inflammation
MetS is accompanied by a chronic low-grade inflammation that is ascribable to obesity and could increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases later in life, as children appear to be more sensitive to oxidative stress than adults [
11,
83,
113]. This is supported by the evidence that diet-induced weight loss exerts anti-inflammatory effects, resulting in improvements in metabolic parameters, lipid levels, and cytokine profiles [
114]. A central role in the development of inflammation is associated to the activation of Toll-like receptors (TLRs), which triggers inflammatory signaling pathways and leads to the release of cytokines [
15‐
17,
25,
28,
32]. Obesity in children exhibits similar inflammatory-mediated mechanisms as in adults, with similarly altered levels of cytokines and adipokines and increased expression of TLR2 and TLR4 [
15,
25,
32,
115]. Here, we will focus on the description of inflammatory markers that have shown changes in children with single or multiple MetS traits.
Leptin is an adipokine highly produced by adipose tissue in obese children [
116,
117] and, despite the ‘leptin resistance’ occurring in obesity, some of its effects are retained: specifically, leptin stimulates the production of IL-6 and TNF-α, contributing to the low-grade-inflammation, as well as activating the sympathetic nervous system leading to hypertension [
15,
17,
28,
35,
116‐
119]. In physiological conditions, leptin stimulates the oxidation of FFAs and the uptake of glucose, thus preventing the accumulation of lipids in non-adipose tissues. When the abundance of FFAs is no longer compensated by leptin activity, they are shifted to the nonoxidative metabolic pathway and detrimental metabolites able to induce β cells death are produced [
26,
33,
34]. Another adipokine strongly related to the pathogenesis of MetS is adiponectin, which is known to exert a variety of protective functions on metabolism and to induce an anti-inflammatory effect via inhibition of TLRs and secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines [
15‐
17,
28,
29,
32]. Therefore, it is not surprising that adiponectin levels are low in obese children [
116,
117,
120]. Chemerin, a novel adipokine that regulates adipocyte development and metabolic functions, is strongly associated to BMI. Moreover, it has been proposed as an early biomarker in children for the risk of developing MetS complications [
121‐
123]. The adipokine resistin enhances macrophage secretion of TNF-α [
124]. Moreover, the development of peripheral IR has been proposed to be caused by its excessive production [
125]. Resistin, whose name was chosen because of its relationship with IR, was expected to be the link between obesity and T2D [
126,
127]. However, further investigations showed contradictory results in adults [
128,
129], whereas an increased production of resistin was consistently described in obese children [
116,
130]. It would be interesting to elucidate if resistin can be a distinctive tract of children with obesity or MetS.
Another adipokine with glucogenic properties, asprosin, is emerging as a potential mediator of obesity and MetS in children. Asprosin is a hormone protein derived from profibrillin, secreted by white adipose tissue during fasting, and plays a role in the hypothalamic control of food intake as well as hepatic glucose release [
131]. In adults, its serum levels have been correlated with various MetS features, including obesity, hypertriglyceridemia, elevated cholesterol levels, T2D and IR. However, conflicting data still exist regarding its association with these factors in children [
132‐
134].
Immune cells are known to exert metabolic functions. M1-macrophages release high levels of TNF-α in obesity which, in turn, provide an inflammatory stimulus that increases the production of IL-6, leptin and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) [
28,
116,
135]. TNF-α induces serine phosphorylation of IRS-1, decreases the expression of GLUT4 in hepatocytes and adipocytes, and stimulates FFAs synthesis, leading to the development of IR [
16,
28,
92,
136]. On the other hand, IL-6 in the liver stimulates the production of C-reactive protein (CRP), the main acute-phase inflammatory molecule associated with childhood obesity, as well as atherosclerosis and cardiac events [
16,
17,
116,
117,
121,
137,
138]. Moreover, IL-1β, which is another cytokine mainly secreted by macrophages, acts by decreasing insulin action on adipocytes and promoting ectopic fat accumulation [
139,
140].
In a condition of hyperglycemia, glucose accumulates in endothelial cells and, together with advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) and FFAs, increases oxidative stress and induces vascular damage [
141]. Several studies have consistently identified heightened levels of oxidative stress markers in obese children, linking them to an elevated risk of metabolic, cardiovascular, and renal complications [
142‐
144]. Among them, the ratio between AGEs and their soluble receptor form (sRAGE) has been proposed as an early indicator of oxidative homeostasis dysregulation [
145]. Notably, sRAGE functions as a decoy by impeding the binding of AGEs to the Receptor for AGEs (RAGE) on the cell surface, thereby averting inflammation. In children with impaired metabolism, plasma sRAGE levels exhibit variability based on BMI and on the number of MetS components [
146]. Correspondingly, the AGEs/sRAGEs ratio increases in overweight and obese children [
147].
Furthermore, the risk of thrombotic events in childhood is enhanced by the TNF-α-mediated release of PAI-1 [
16,
28,
116]. In this context, the role of vasodilatory nitric oxide (NO) is less clear. Its production is stimulated by insulin and when IR occurs nitric oxide synthase is less activated [
141]. However, increased levels of NO are observed in obese children. This paradox can be explained by the fact that excess NO reacts with the reactive oxygen species (ROS) in radical reactions, thus providing more oxidative stress [
144,
148].
New markers for metabolic disfunction are microRNAs (miRNAs). MiRNAs are short, noncoding single strain RNA molecules that regulate post-transcriptional gene expression by binding to complementary miRNA. A large number of miRNAs are described to be associated with single components of MetS [
17,
149,
150], but only a few of them appear to be linked to the syndrome as a whole. Among them, miR-Let-7e, miR-93 and miR-24-3p circulating levels have been found to be increased in children with MetS [
149‐
151].
Chronic inflammation ascribed to obesity plays an important role in triggering the mechanisms that lead to insulin resistance and cardiovascular events. This highlights the importance of prevention at an early age, when an appropriate lifestyle - with a balanced diet and adequate physical activity - has the potential to probtect from long-term complications.
Alteration of the gut microbiota
The human intestinal microbiota is composed by a large number of microorganisms with the vast majority of bacteria belonging to the Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, Fusobacteria and Verrucomicrobia phyla [
152,
153]. Table
2 shows bacteria that have been described to be altered in the gut microbiota of pediatric individuals with obesity or MetS-associated disorders.
Table 2
Bacteria that have been described to be altered in the gut microbiota of pediatric individuals with obesity or MetS-associated disorders
Firmicutes (or Bacillota) | Bacilli | Lactobacillales | Lactobacillaceae | Lactobacillus ↑ | O vs NW | |
Erysipelotrichia | Erysipelotrichales | Erysipelotrichaceae ↑ | | OMS vs O and OMS vs NW | |
Turicibacteraceae ↓ | Turicibacter ↓ | O + IR vs O + IS | |
Coprobacillaceae | Catenibacterium ↑ | OMS vs NW and O | |
Clostridia | Clostridiales (or Eubacteriales) ↑ | Oscillospiraceae or ruminococcaceae ↓ | | O vs NW | |
Faecalibacterium ↓ Species: Faecalibacterium Prausnitzii ↓ | O vs NW | |
O vs NW | |
Lachnospiraceae | Coprococcus ↑ | OMS vs NW | |
Anaerostipes ↓ | O + IR vs O + IS | |
Lachnospira ↑ | O vs NW | |
Christensenellaceae ↓ | | O vs NW | |
Eubacteriales family XIII | Eubacterium brachy ↓ | O vs NW | |
Peptococcaceae ↑ | | O + IR vs O + IS | |
Negativicutes | Acidaminococcales | Acidaminococcaceae | Phascolarctobacterium ↓ | O vs NW | |
| Veillonellales | Veillonellaceae | Dialister ↓ | O + IR vs O + IS | |
Bacteroidota | Bacteroidia | Bacteroidales ↑ | Prevotellaceae ↓ | | O vs NW | |
Prevotella ↓ | O vs NW | |
Bacteroidaceae ↑ | Bacteroides ↓ | O vs NW | |
Tannerellaceae | Parabacteroides ↓ species: Parabacteroides distasonis↓ | OMS vs O | |
Porphyromonadaceae | Porphyromonas↑ | O vs NW and OMS | |
Rikenellaceae | Alistipes ↓ | O vs NW | |
Verrucomicrobia | Verrucomicrobiae | Verrucomicrobiales | Akkermansiaceae | Akkermansia Species: Akkermansia muciniphyla ↓ | O vs NW | |
Pseudomonadota | Gammaproteobacteria | Enterobacterales | Enterobacteriaceae ↑ | | O vs NW | |
Pasteurellales | Pasteurellaaceae | Haemophilus ↓ | O + IR vs O + IS | |
Deltaproteobacteria | Desulfovibrionales | Desulfovibrionaceae | Desulfovibrio ↓ | O vs NW | |
Actinobacteria | Coriobacteriia | Coriobacteriales ↓ | | | O + IR vs O + IS | |
Coriobacteriaceae | Collinsella Species: Collinsella aerofaciens ↑ | OMS vs O and NW | |
Eggerthellales | Eggerthellaceae | Adlercreutzia ↓ | O + IR vs O + IS | |
Metabolic syndrome has been associated with a higher Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio (F/B) [
154‐
156]. In studies conducted by Gallardo‑Becerra et al. [
154] and Haro et al. [
155], in children and adults respectively, a higher abundance of Firmicutes and a lower abundance of Bacteroidetes were found in patients with MetS. These differences were statistically significant when obese patients with MetS were compared with normal-weight subjects; however, obese patients without MetS also showed an increase in the F/B ratio [
154,
156]. Given that obesity plays a central role in the development of MetS, it’s not surprising that dysbiosis goes in the same direction. However, as both obesity and IR have been independently associated with an increased F/B ratio in children [
157‐
159], the timing of changes in gut microbiota composition during the natural history of MetS is unclear.
Within the Firmicutes phylum, an increase in the class Bacilli is observed in MetS children [
154]. In an adult cohort of patients with MetS this was attributed to the expansion of the Lactobacillus genus [
160]. However, conflicting data regarding the Lactobacillus genus are reported in obese children [
159,
161]. In addition, in the order Erysipelotrichales, an increase in the genus Catenibacterium was observed in children with MetS [
154], while a decrease in the Turicibacter genus was described in children with IR [
158].
The most significant difference within the Firmicutes phylum is found in the class Clostridia, where the increase of the overall abundance of the Clostridiales order concomitant with metabolic traits in children [
154] is due to an imbalance between several genera. Moreover, the obesity phenotype is associated in children with a lower presence of the Oscillospiraceae family [
157,
162,
163] and specifically with a decrease in the Faecalibacterium prausnitzii species [
154,
164]. These data are in line with those described in adults with MetS, with obesity being the driving factor of this alteration [
155,
160]. Faecalibacterium prausnitzii has an anti-inflammatory function, and its decrease may be the result of a protracted inflammatory process, as occurs in obesity [
164].
Several studies have shown that the decline in the phylum of Bacteroidota is due to significant changes in the order of the Bacteroidales. However, while the reduction in Prevotella appears to begin with the onset of childhood obesity [
162,
164] and then persists in adult MetS [
155], other bacterial genera have shown different characteristics between these two groups. Specifically, obesity was associated with a decrease in Alistipes and an increase in Phorphyromonas [
154,
163], while Parabacteroides distasonis represents a biomarker of MetS [
154,
155,
160] as it negatively correlates with more than a single metabolic disorder, including waist circumference, glucose and triglycerides serum levels [
160].
Bacteria contribute to the development of MetS through several mechanisms. First, the gut microbiota contributes to low-grade inflammation through infiltration of lipopolysaccharides, causing endotoxemia and TLRs activation [
17,
25,
28,
107,
153,
161]. In addition, dysbiosis is characterized by a reduction in short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs)-producing bacteria [
155,
165,
166]. SCFAs are metabolites obtained from microbial fermentation of indigestible carbohydrates that protect against the development of metabolic abnormalities; they stimulate the production of molecules such as GLP-1 and GLP-2 which have an anti-inflammatory activity and improve the function of the intestinal barrier [
153,
165,
167]. Although the gut microbiota may change with age and is sensitive to environmental factors -such as social status and diet-, its composition clearly changes between MHO and MUO children [
153,
157,
159,
168]. Moreover, bacteria associated with the production of SCFAs, namely Parabacteroides distasonis, Prevotella and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, as well as the F/B ratio, in adults with MetS follow the same trend as in children [
153,
157,
165]. Benefits resulting from the restoration of gut microbiome composition through the administration of probiotics or fecal microbiome transplantation corroborate the crucial importance of having a healthy gut [
28,
165,
169].