Cohort Demographic and Clinical Characteristics
A total of 162 participants were newly recruited for this study. All data including age, gender, ethnicity, medical history, medications, and genotypes of each participant are recorded in Supplementary Table 1. The participants ranged in age from 19 to 86 years with a mean age of 59 years and 82% (n = 133) of the cohort was ≥ 50 years. Male patients comprised 51.9% (n = 84) of the cohort while female patients comprised 48.1% (n = 78). The majority of participants self-identified as Indian at 65.4% (n = 106), while 22.8% (n = 37) self-identified as either Caribbean Black and 11.7% (n = 19) identified as mixed.
Coronary artery disease (CAD) (77.1%, n = 125), hypertension (HTN) (72.8%, n = 118), and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) (46.9%, n = 76) were the most commonly diagnosed clinical conditions within the cohort. Clinical diagnosis of hypersensitivity lung disease (31.5%, n = 51), cardiovascular event (13%, n = 21), chronic kidney disease (4%, n = 7) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (2.5%, n = 4) were also reported in the cohort.
The relationship between disease prevalence and sex was determined using a chi-square test of independence. Prevalence of CAD was found to be significantly associated with sex in in this cohort, χ2(1, 162) = 11.8, p = 0.0006. There was no statistically significant association between sex and prevalence of HTN or T2D in this cohort, χ2(1, 162) = 0.18, p = 0.68 and χ2(1, 162) = 5.45, p = 0.02, respectively.
Overall, high rates of comorbidities among CAD, HTN and T2D were reported; 84% (105/125) of people presenting with CAD also presented with either T2D, HTN or both T2D & HTN. Strikingly, 45.6% (57/125) of people presenting with CAD also presented with both T2D and HTN. Of those participants presenting with T2D, 96.1% (73/76) also presented with either CAD, HTN, or both CAD & HTN.
In this cohort, the most common demographics were Indian males with CAD (35.2%, n = 57), Indian males with HTN (27.8%, n = 45), and Indian males with both CAD and HTN (25.9%, n = 42).
The most prescribed medications in the cohort at the time of data collection were aspirin (80.7%, n = 131), statins (70.4%, n = 114), ACEi/ARB (64.2%, n = 104), clopidogrel (42.0%, n = 68), and nitrates (34.0%, n = 55). Beta blockers (28.4%, n = 46), calcium channel blockers (27.2%, n = 44), trimetazidine (10.5%, n = 17), ivabradine (4.9%, n = 8) and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist (4.3%, n = 7) were also prescribed to a lesser extent in the cohort.
In this cohort, aspirin plus statins was the most commonly prescribed combination of medications (64.8%, n = 105), followed by aspirin and ACEi/ARB (58.6%, n = 95), and aspirin and clopidogrel (38.9%, n = 63). Importantly, in this cohort, clopidogrel was never prescribed alone. It was most commonly prescribed with aspirin (92.6%, n = 63). It was also prescribed with statins and ACEi/ARB. In fact, clopidogrel was commonly prescribed in combination with aspirin, statins, and ACEi/ARB (64.7%, n = 44). Of those prescribed these four medications in combination, 56.8% (n = 25) were males of Indian descent. Of note, clopidogrel was almost twice as likely to be prescribed to males than females. This is in contrast to aspirin, statins, and ACEi/ARB, which were not significantly different in their rates of prescription to males and females.
CYP2C19*2 and CYP2C19*3 Genotype Frequencies
Of the newly recruited participants, 156 of 162 were successfully genotyped for the
CYP2C19*2 (Table
2) and
CYP2C19*3 variants. All genotyping results from the PCR and restriction digest protocols were consistent with the genotypes obtained from sequencing.
Table 2
Genotype frequency of the CYP2C19*2 variant, ethnicity, and sex in the main cohort
AA (CYP2C19*2/*2) | 34 (21.8%) | 22 (21.8%) | 5 (13.9%) | 7 (36.8%) | 14 (17.3%) | 20 (26.7%) |
AG (CYP2C19*1/*2) | 65 (41.7%) | 52 (51.5%) | 9 (25%) | 4 (21.1%) | 34 (42%) | 31 (41.3%) |
GG (CYP2C19*1/*1) | 57 (36.5%) | 27 (26.7%) | 22 (61.1%) | 8 (42.1%) | 33 (40.7%) | 24 (32%) |
The CYP2C19*2 allele was detected in 63.5% (99/156) of the cohort. At the CYP2C19*2 locus, 57 participants had the GG (CYP2C19*1/*1) genotype, 65 had the AG (CYP2C19*1/*2) genotype and 34 had the AA (CYP2C19*2/*2) genotype.
The CYP2C19*3 variant was not detected in this study population. Visualization of restriction digested PCR amplicons from all samples showed only two DNA bands at 96 bp and 175 bp, indicating the genotype GG at the CYP2C19*3 locus.
The CYP2C19*2 allele was most prevalent in Indian patients, as 73% of Indians carried this allele. There was a statistically significant association between ethnicity and CYP2C19*2 genotype χ2(2, 156) = 18.449, p = 0.001. Compared to African patients, Indian patients were three times more likely (odds ratio (OR) = 3.18, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.36–7.44) to have the AG genotype and four times more likely (OR = 4.31, 95% CI 1.93–9.6049) to have the AA or AG genotype. A chi-square test of independence showed that there was no statistically significant association between sex and CYP2C19*2 genotype, χ2(2, 156) = 2.39, p = 0.302.
CYP2C19*2 Genotype and Clopidogrel Usage in Patients with CAD
Of particular concern, almost two-thirds (63.6%; 42/66) of the patients prescribed clopidogrel carried the loss-of-function
CYP2C19*2 variant (Table
3); three-quarters of which had the heterozygous
CYP2C19*1/*2 genotype, and one-quarter had the homozygous
CYP2C19*2/*2 genotype.
Table 3
Distribution of patients prescribed clopidogrel and presenting with coronary artery disease according to CYP2C19*2 genotype
GG (CYP2C19*1/*1) | 24 (36.4%) | 23 (36.5%) |
AG (CYP2C19*1/*2) | 31 (47.0%) | 30 (47.6%) |
AA (CYP2C19*2/*2) | 11 (16.7%) | 10 (15.9%) |
In this cohort derived from the major catchment clinic for patients with cardiovascular disease in this country, we found that 66.6% (80/120) of people presenting with CAD, i.e., those for whom clopidogrel is a common treatment option, carry the
CYP2C19*2 loss-of-function allele; 53 of these had the heterozygous
CYP2C19*1/*2 genotype, and 27 of these had the homozygous
CYP2C19*2/*2 genotype. Even more strikingly, we found that 63.5% (40/63) of people with CAD who are already prescribed clopidogrel carry the
CYP2C19*2 allele, three-quarters of which had the heterozygous
CYP2C19*1/*2 genotype, and one-quarter had the homozygous
CYP2C19*2/*2 genotype (Table
3).
CAD and T2D are common comorbidities in this cohort with 61 patients suffering from both. In this cohort, we found that a majority of 73.7% (45/61) of participants with both CAD and T2D carry the CYP2C19*2 allele; 18% (11/61) of which are homozygous for the CYP2C19*2 allele and 55.7% (34/61) of which are heterozygous for the CYP2C19*2 allele.