nach oben

Journal of Pediatric Neuropsychology

Erschienen in:

26.10.2023 | Review

Bio-Psycho-Sociocultural Lens Highlights Racial and Ethnic Inequities in Neuropsychological Outcomes Following COVID-19

verfasst von: Ailyn D. Diaz, Alana M. McNeill, Elizabeth S. Miceli, Jasmin Lagman, Jessica Bonatakis, Meenal Pathak

Erschienen in: Journal of Pediatric Neuropsychology | Ausgabe 1/2024

Einloggen, um Zugang zu erhalten

Abstract

This narrative review investigates racial and ethnic inequities in children with a history of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), focusing on neuropsychological outcomes using a bio-psycho-sociocultural approach. We conducted literature searches in PubMed, PsycINFO, ERIC, and Web of Science and analyzed public-use data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) from the start of the pandemic to March 17, 2023. Public-use data from the CDC were analyzed to establish inequities in pediatric COVID-19 cases. Results indicate that children marginalized by race and ethnicity are disproportionately affected by COVID-19. Our findings show that racial and ethnic inequities in children with a history of COVID-19 can be effectively examined using a bio-psycho-sociocultural conceptual model. While biological and psychological factors contribute to illness severity and stress responses, sociocultural factors, such as discrimination, systemic racism, intergenerational trauma, and medical mistrust, exacerbate these inequities. Positive sociocultural factors highlighted the importance of language, proper nutrition, school support for diverse cultures, and open family discussions in fostering resilience and well-being among children from diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds. Furthermore, there are limited studies on neuropsychological outcomes in children from various racial and ethnic backgrounds with a history of COVID-19. Therefore, longitudinal research, educational interventions, and culturally sensitive clinical practice can help address these disparities and promote better access to care for children affected by COVID-19.

Abrams, E. M., Greenhawt, M., Shaker, M., Pinto, A. D., Sinha, I., & Singer, A. (2022). The COVID-19 pandemic: Adverse effects on the social determinants of health in children and families. Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology, 128(1), 19–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anai.2021.10.022CrossRef

Altman, C. E., Dondero, M., Heflin, C. M., & Nusbaum, D. (2022). Current and future food insufficiency during COVID-19: Examining disparities by race/ethnicity and recent work loss. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 9(5), 1794–1806. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-021-01116-2CrossRefPubMed

American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Trauma- and stressor-related disorders. In Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed., text rev. ed.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787

Anakwe, A., Majee, W., Ponder, M., & BeLue, R. (2022). COVID-19 and crisis communication among African American households. Families Systems & Health, 40(3), 408–412. https://doi.org/10.1037/fsh0000705CrossRef

Antoon, J. W., Hall, M., Howard, L. M., Herndon, A., Freundlich, K. L., Grijalva, C. G., & Williams, D. J. (2022). COVID-19 and acute neurologic complications in children. Pediatrics (Evanston), 150(5), 1. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2022-058167CrossRef

Asabor, E. N., Warren, J. L., & Cohen, T. (2022). Racial/ethnic segregation and access to COVID-19 testing: Spatial distribution of COVID-19 testing sites in the four largest highly segregated cities in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 112(3), 518–526. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2021.306558CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Bandi, S., Nevid, M. Z., & Mahdavinia, M. (2020). African American children are at higher risk of COVID-19 infection. Pediatric Allergy and Immunology, 31(7), 861–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/pai.13298CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Barendse, M. E. A., Flannery, J., Cavanagh, C., Aristizabal, M., Becker, S. P., Berger, E., Breaux, R., Campione-Barr, N., Church, J. A., Crone, E. A., Dahl, R. E., Dennis-Tiwary, T. A., Dvorsky, M. R., Dziura, S. L., van de Groep, S., Ho, T. C., Killoren, S. E., Langberg, J. M., Larguinho, T. L., ..., Pfeifer, J. H. (2023). Longitudinal change in adolescent depression and anxiety symptoms from before to during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 33(1), 74–91. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12781

Bitsko, R. H., Claussen, A. H., Lichstein, J., Black, L. I., Jones, S. E., Danielson, M. L., Hoenig, J. M., Davis Jack, S. P., Brody, D. J., Gyawali, S., Maenner, M. J., Warner, M., Holland, K. M., Perou, R., Crosby, A. E., Blumberg, S. J., Avenevoli, S., Kaminski, J. W., & Ghandour, R. M. (2022). Mental health surveillance among children - United States, 2013–2019. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Supplement, 71(2), 1–42. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.su7102a1CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Borel, M., Xie, L., Kapera, O., Mihalcea, A., Kahn, J., & Messiah, S. E. (2022). Long-term physical, mental and social health effects of COVID-19 in the pediatric population: A scoping review. World Journal of Pediatrics., 18(3), 149–159. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12519-022-00515-7CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Brackel, C. L. H., Lap, C. R., Buddingh, E. P., van Houten, M. A., van der Sande, L. J. T. M., Langereis, E. J., Bannier, M. A. G. E., Pijnenburg, M. W. H., Hashimoto, S., & Terheggen-Lagro, S. W. J. (2021). Pediatric long-COVID: An overlooked phenomenon? Pediatric Pulmonology, 56(8), 2495–2502. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppul.25521CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Brown, C., Morlock, A., Blakolmer, K., Heidari, E., & Morlock, R. (2022). COVID-19 vaccination and race – a nationwide survey of vaccination status, intentions, and trust in the US general population. Journal of Managed Care & Specialty Pharmacy, 28(12), 1429–1438. https://doi.org/10.18553/jmcp.2022.28.12.1429CrossRef

Buonsenso, D., Pujol, F. E., Munblit, D., Pata, D., McFarland, S., & Simpson, F. K. (2022). Clinical characteristics, activity levels and mental health problems in children with long coronavirus disease: A survey of 510 children. Future Microbiology, 17(8), 577–588. https://doi.org/10.2217/fmb-2021-0285CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Byrd, C. M. (2015). The associations of intergroup interactions and school racial socialization with academic motivation. The Journal of Educational Research, 108(1), 10–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2013.831803CrossRef

Caldarulo, M., Mossberger, K., & Howell, A. (2023). Community-wide broadband adoption and student academic achievement. Telecommunications Policy, 47(1), 102445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2022.102445CrossRef

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (U.S.). (2014). Trauma-informed care in behavioral health services: A treatment improvement protocol. U.S. department of health and human services, substance abuse and mental health services administration, center for substance abuse treatment.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023a). CDC global health equity: Definition of terms. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.cdc.gov/globalhealth/equity/terms.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023b). COVID data tracker. U.S. department of health and human services. https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#demographics

Chang, J. E., Lai, A. Y., Gupta, A., Nguyen, A. M., Berry, C. A., & Shelley, D. R. (2021). Rapid transition to telehealth and the digital divide: Implications for primary care access and equity in a post-COVID era. The Milbank Quarterly, 99(2), 340–368. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0009.12509CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Cheah, C. S. L., Wang, C., Ren, H., Zong, X., Cho, H. S., & Xue, X. (2020). COVID-19 racism and mental health in Chinese American families. Pediatrics (Evanston), 146(5), e2020021816. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-021816CrossRef

Choi, J. H., Choi, S. H., & Yun, K. W. (2022). Risk factors for severe COVID-19 in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Korean Medical Science, 37(5), e35. https://doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2022.37.e35CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Chou, S., Han, C., Ouyang, J. X., & Yan Li, A. S. (2022). East Asian population. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 31(4), 745–763. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2022.05.006CrossRefPubMed

Colvin, M. K., Reesman, J., & Glen, T. (2022a). Reforming learning disorder diagnosis following COVID-19 educational disruption. Nature Reviews Psychology, 1(5), 251–252. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-022-00052-0CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Colvin, M. K., Reesman, J., & Glen, T. (2022b). The impact of COVID-19 related educational disruption on children and adolescents: An interim data summary and commentary on ten considerations for neuropsychological practice. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 36(1), 45–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2021.1970230CrossRefPubMed

Condie, L. O. (2020). Neurotropic mechanisms in COVID-19 and their potential influence on neuropsychological outcomes in children. Child Neuropsychology, 26(5), 577–596. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2020.1763938CrossRefPubMed

Cormier, S. A., Yamamoto, A., Short, K. R., Vu, L., & Suk, W. A. (2022). Environmental impacts on COVID-19: Mechanisms of increased susceptibility. Annals of Global Health, 88(1), 94. https://doi.org/10.5334/aogh.3907CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Cotton, N. K., & Shim, R. S. (2022). Social determinants of health, structural racism, and the impact on child and adolescent mental health. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 61(11), 1385–1389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.04CrossRefPubMed

Coughlin, C. G., Sandel, M., & Stewart, A. M. (2020). Homelessness, children, and COVID-19: A looming crisis. Pediatrics (Evanston), 146(2), 1. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-1408CrossRef

Courtney, J. G., Chuke, S. O., Dyke, K., Credle, K., Lecours, C., Egan, K. B., & Leonard, M. (2021). Decreases in young children who received blood lead level testing during COVID-19 - 34 Jurisdictions, January-May 2020. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 70(5), 155–161. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7005a2CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Diaz, A. D., & Baweja, R. (2021). The role of neurotropism in psychiatric patients with COVID-19. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 271(2), 385–386. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-020-01197-wCrossRefPubMed

Diaz, A., Baweja, R., Bonatakis, J. K., & Baweja, R. (2021). Global health disparities in vulnerable populations of psychiatric patients during the COVID-19 pandemic. World Journal of Psychiatry, 11(4), 94–108. https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v11.i4.94CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Dineen, K., Autzen, B., & Alwan, N. A. (2022). Children, intersectionality, and COVID-19. The Lancet, 399(10327), 799. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(22)00174-xCrossRef

Dündar, İ, & Akıncı, A. (2022). Prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, and related morbidities in overweight and obese children. Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology and Metabolism, 35(4), 435–441. https://doi.org/10.1515/jpem-2021-0271CrossRefPubMed

Duque, R. B. (2021). Black health matters too… especially in the era of COVID-19: How poverty and race converge to reduce access to quality housing, safe neighborhoods, and health and wellness services and increase the risk of comorbidities associated with global pandemics. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 8(4), 1012–1025. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-020-00857-wCrossRefPubMed

Engel, G. L. (1977). The need for a new medical model: A challenge for biomedicine. Science, 196(4286), 129–136.CrossRefPubMed

Enner, S., Shah, Y. D., Ali, A., Cerise, J. E., Esposito, J., Rubin, L., Subramony, A., & Kothare, S. (2022). Patients diagnosed with multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children have persistent neurologic, sleep, and psychiatric symptoms after hospitalization. Journal of Child Neurology, 37(5), 426–433. https://doi.org/10.1177/08830738221075924CrossRefPubMed

Felsenstein, S., & Hedrich, C. M. (2020). SARS-CoV-2 infections in children and young people. Clinical Immunology, 220, 108588. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clim.2020.108588CrossRefPubMed

Flowers, P., Davis, M., Lohm, D., Waller, E., & Stephenson, N. (2016). Understanding pandemic influenza behavior: An exploratory biopsychosocial study. Journal of Health Psychology, 21(5), 759–769. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105314537542CrossRefPubMed

Friedman, J., York, H., Mokdad, A. H., & Gakidou, E. (2021). U.S. children “learning online” during COVID-19 without the internet or a computer: Visualizing the gradient by race/ethnicity and parental educational attainment. Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, 7, 237802312199260–2378023121992607. https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023121992607CrossRef

Furman, J., Kearney, M. S., & Powell, W. M. (2021). The role of childcare challenges in the US jobs market recovery during the COVID-19 pandemic. RePEc: Research Papers in Economics, 28394, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.3386/w28934CrossRef

Ghaemi, S. N. (2009). The rise and fall of the biopsychosocial model. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 195(1), 3–4. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.109.063859CrossRefPubMed

Gonzalez, P., & Birnbaum-Weitzman, O. (2020). Sociocultural. In M. D. Gellman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of behavioral medicine (pp. 2105–2107). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39903-0_1511CrossRef

Gonzalez-Aumatell, A., Victoria Bovo, M., Carreras-Abad, C., Cuso-Perez, S., Marsal, E. D., Coll-Fernandez, R., GoicoecheaCalvo, A., Giralt-Lopez, M., EnsenatCantallops, A., Moron-Lopez, S., Martinez-Picado, J., Ventura, P. S., Rodrigo, C., & Mendez Hernandez, M. (2022). Social, academic and health status impact of long COVID on children and young people: An observational, descriptive, and longitudinal cohort study. Children-Basel, 9(11), 1677. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9111677CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Gouvernet, B., & Bonierbale, M. (2022). Biopsychosocial study on the impact of the COVID-19 lockdown on depression and anxiety in a sample of 1753 French-speaking subjects. Encephale, 48(2), 118–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.encep.2021.03.002CrossRefPubMed

Gray, A., & Fisher, C. B. (2022). Determinants of COVID-19 vaccine uptake in adolescents 12–17 years old: Examining pediatric vaccine hesitancy among racially diverse parents in the United States. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, 844310. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.844310CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Gruhn, M., Miller, A. B., Machlin, L., Motton, S., Thinzar, C. E., & Sheridan, M. A. (2023). Child anxiety and depression symptom trajectories and predictors over 15 months of the coronavirus pandemic. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, 51(2), 233–246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-022-00963-9CrossRefPubMed

Hammerstein, S., König, C., Dreisörner, T., & Frey, A. (2021). Effects of COVID-19-related school closures on student achievement-a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 746289. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.746289CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Harrison, P. J., & Taquet, M. (2023). Neuropsychiatric disorders following SARS-CoV-2 infection. Brain. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awad008CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Hatala, A. R. (2012). The status of the biopsychosocial model in health psychology: Towards an integrated approach and a critique of cultural conceptions. Open Journal of Medical Psychology, 1(4), 23900. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojmp.2012.14009CrossRef

Hedderson, M. M., Bekelman, T. A., Li, M., Knapp, E. A., Palmore, M., Dong, Y., Elliott, A. J., Friedman, C., Galarce, M., Gilbert-Diamond, D., Glueck, D., Hockett, C. W., Lucchini, M., McDonald, J., Sauder, K., Zhu, Y., Karagas, M. R., Dabelea, D., & Ferrara, A. (2023). Trends in screen time use among children during the COVID-19 pandemic, July 2019 through August 2021. JAMA Network Open, 6(2), e2256157. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.56157CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Holmes, L. J., Wu, C., Hinson, R., Dias, E., Nelson, C., Pelaez, L., Dabney, K., Whaley, K., & Williams, J. (2022). Black-White risk differentials in pediatric COVID-19 hospitalization and intensive care unit admissions in the USA. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-022-01305-7CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Howe, C. J., Morone, J., Hawkes, C. P., & Lipman, T. H. (2023). Racial disparities in technology use in children with type 1 diabetes: A qualitative content analysis of parents’ perspectives. Science of Diabetes Self-Management and Care, 49(1), 55–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/26350106221145323CrossRefPubMed

Jackson, R., Johnson, A., Hecht, M., & Ribeau, S. (2019). African American competence and language/communication styles. In African American communication: Examining the complexities of lived experience (3rd ed., pp. 77–122). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351103244

Jones, J. H., & Reverby, S. M. (2022). 50 years after the tuskegee revelations: why does the mistrust linger? American Journal of Public Health, 112(11), 1538–1540. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2022.307088CrossRefPubMed

Jones, K., Mallon, S., & Schnitzler, K. (2023). A scoping review of the psychological and emotional impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on children and young people. Illness, Crisis, & Loss, 31(1), 175–199. https://doi.org/10.1177/10541373211047191CrossRef

Karamlou, T., Hawke, J. L., Zafar, F., Kafle, M., Tweddell, J. S., Najm, H. K., Frebis, J. R., & Bryant, R. G. (2022). Widening our focus: Characterizing socioeconomic and racial disparities in congenital heart disease. The Annals of Thoracic Surgery, 113(1), 157–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.athoracsur.2021.04.008CrossRefPubMed

Kim, L., Whitaker, M., O’Halloran, A., Kambhampati, A., Chai, S. J., Reingold, A., Armistead, I., Kawasaki, B., Meek, J., Yousey-Hindes, K., Anderson, E. J., Openo, K. P., Weigel, A., Ryan, P., Monroe, M. L., Fox, K., Kim, S., Lynfield, R., & Bye, E. (2020). Hospitalization rates and characteristics of children aged <18 years hospitalized with laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 - COVID-NET, 14 States, March 1-July 25, 2020. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69(32), 1081–1088. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6932e3CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Kop, W. J. (2021). Biopsychosocial processes of health and disease during the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychosomatic Medicine, 83(4), 304–308. https://doi.org/10.1097/psy.0000000000000954CrossRefPubMed

Kurd, M., Hashavya, S., Benenson, S., & Gilboa, T. (2021). Seizures as the main presenting manifestation of acute SARS-CoV-2 infection in children. Seizure, 92, 89–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2021.08.017CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

La Fauci, G., Montalti, M., Di Valerio, Z., Gori, D., Salomoni, M. G., Salussolia, A., Soldà, G., & Guaraldi, F. (2022). Obesity and COVID-19 in children and adolescents: Reciprocal detrimental influence-systematic literature review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(13), 7603. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19137603CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

LaPoint, V., Butty, J.-A.M., Danzy, C., & Small, C. (2010). Sociocultural factors. In C. S. Clauss-Ehlers (Ed.), Encyclopedia of cross-cultural school psychology (pp. 904–911). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-71799-9_394CrossRef

Lawson, M., Piel, M. H., & Simon, M. (2020). Child maltreatment during the COVID-19 pandemic: Consequences of parental job loss on psychological and physical abuse towards children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 110(Pt 2), 104709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104709CrossRef

Lee, J., & Ramakrishnan, K. (2020). Who counts as Asian? Ethnic and Racial Studies, 43(10), 1733–1756. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2019.1671600CrossRef

Li, L., Flynn, K. S., DeRosier, M. E., Weiser, G., & Austin-King, K. (2021). Social-emotional learning amidst COVID-19 school closures: Positive findings from an efficacy study of adventures aboard the S.S. GRIN program. Frontiers in Education (Lausanne), 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.683142

Lindsey, M. A., Sheftall, A. H., Xiao, Y., & Joe, S. (2019). Trends of suicidal behaviors among high school students in the United States: 1991–2017. Pediatrics, 144(5):1. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-1187

Lorman, V., Rao, S., Jhaveri, R., Case, A., Mejias, A., Pajor, N. M., Patel, P., Thacker, D., Bose-Brill, S., Block, J., Hanley, P. C., Prahalad, P., Chen, Y., Forrest, C. B., Bailey, L. C., Lee, G. M., & Razzaghi, H. (2023). Understanding pediatric long COVID using a tree-based scan statistic approach: An EHR-based cohort study from the RECOVER Program. JAMIA Open, 6(1), ooad016. https://doi.org/10.1093/jamiaopen/ooad016CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Loth, K. A., Hersch, D., Trofholz, A., Harnack, L., & Norderud, K. (2023). Impacts of COVID-19 on the home food environment and eating related behaviors of families with young children based on food security status. Appetite, 180, 106345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2022.106345CrossRefPubMed

Maenner, M. J., Shaw, K. A., Bakian, A. V., Bilder, D. A., Durkin, M. S., Esler, A., . . . Cogswell, M. E. (2021). Prevalence and characteristics of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years - autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 sites, United States, 2018. MMWR Surveill Summ, 70(11), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.ss7011a1

Mahase, V., Sobitan, A., Rhoades, R., Zhang, F., Baranova, A., Johnson, M., Otolorin, A., Tang, Q., & Teng, S. (2022). Genetic variations affecting ACE2 protein stability in minority populations. Frontiers in Medicine, 9, 1002187. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2022.1002187CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Mann, E. A., Rompicherla, S., Gallagher, M. P., Alonso, G. T., Fogel, N. R., Simmons, J., Wood, J. R., Wong, J. C., Noor, N., Gomez, P., Daniels, M., & Ebekozien, O. (2022). Comorbidities increase COVID-19 hospitalization in young people with type 1 diabetes. Pediatric Diabetes, 3(7), 968–975. https://doi.org/10.1111/pedi.13402CrossRef

Mannheim, J., Konda, S., & Logan, L. K. (2022). Racial, ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in SARS-CoV-2 infection amongst children. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 36(3), 337–346. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppe.12865CrossRefPubMed

McArthur, B. A., Racine, N., McDonald, S., Tough, S., & Madigan, S. (2023). Child and family factors associated with child mental health and well-being during COVID-19. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 32(2), 223–233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-021-01849-9CrossRef

Meinhardt, J., Radke, J., Dittmayer, C., Franz, J., Thomas, C., Mothes, R., Laue, M., Schneider, J., Brünink, S., Greuel, S., Lehmann, M., Hassan, O., Aschman, T., Schumann, E., Chua, R. L., Conrad, C., Eils, R., Stenzel, W., Windgassen, M., ..., Heppner, F. L. (2021). Olfactory transmucosal SARS-CoV-2 invasion as a port of central nervous system entry in individuals with COVID-19. Nature Neuroscience, 24(2), 168–175. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-020-00758-5

Merzon, E., Manor, I., Rotem, A., Schneider, T., Vinker, S., Golan Cohen, A., Lauden, A., Weizman, A., & Green, I. (2021). ADHD as a risk factor for infection with COVID-19. Journal of Attention Disorders, 25(13), 1783–1790. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054720943271CrossRefPubMed

Metzl, J. M., & Hansen, H. (2014). Structural competency: theorizing a new medical engagement with stigma and inequality. Soc Sci Med, 103, 126–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.06.032CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Miller, L. E., Kaseda, E. T., Koop, J. I., Mau, K. A., & Heffelfinger, A. K. (2021). Differential access to neuropsychological evaluation in children with perinatal complications or autism spectrum disorder: Impact of sociodemographic factors. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35(5), 988–1008. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2020.1837247CrossRefPubMed

Morgan, P. L., Staff, J., Hillemeier, M. M., Farkas, G., & Maczuga, S. (2013). Racial and ethnic disparities in ADHD diagnosis from kindergarten to eighth grade. Pediatrics, 132(1), 85–93. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-2390CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Morhart, P., Kehl, S., Schuh, W., Hermes, K., Meltendorf, S., Neubert, A., Schneider, M., Brunner-Weinzierl, M., Schneider, H., & Lingel, H. (2023). Age-related differences in immune reactions to SARS-CoV-2 spike and nucleocapsid antigens. In Vivo, 37(1), 70–78. https://doi.org/10.21873/invivo.13055CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Murata, S., Rezeppa, T., Thoma, B., Marengo, L., Krancevich, K., Chiyka, E., Hayes, B., Goodfriend, E., Deal, M., Zhong, Y., Brummit, B., Coury, T., Riston, S., Brent, D. A., & Melhem, N. M. (2021). The psychiatric sequelae of the COVID-19 pandemic in adolescents, adults, and health care workers. Depression and Anxiety, 38(2), 233–246. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.23120CrossRefPubMed

National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. (2023). Coronavirus and the nervous system. National Institutes of Health. https://www.ninds.nih.gov/current-research/coronavirus-and-ninds/coronavirus-andnervous-system

Ng, R., Vargas, G., Jashar, D. T., Morrow, A., & Malone, L. A. (2022). Neurocognitive and psychosocial characteristics of pediatric patients with post-acute/long-COVID: A retrospective clinical case series. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 37(8), 1633–1643. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acac056CrossRefPubMed

Nobari, T. Z., Anderson, C. E., & Whaley, S. E. (2023). The COVID-19 pandemic contributed to disparities in housing-cost burden among WIC-participating households in the most populous county in California. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 10(1), 100–109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-021-01200-7CrossRefPubMed

Ochs, E., & Shohet, M. (2006). The cultural structuring of mealtime socialization. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2006(111), 35–49. https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.154CrossRef

Office of Minority Health. (2023, March 9). Asian American. U.S. department of health and human services. https://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/omh/browse.aspx?lvl=3&lvlid=63

Olivé-Cirera, G., Fonseca, E., Cantarín-Extremera, V., Vázquez-López, M., Jiménez-Legido, M., González-Álvarez, V., Ribeiro-Constante, J., Camacho-Salas, A., Martí, I., Cancho-Candela, R., Martínez-González, M. J., Saiz, A., Armangué, T., & Spanish Study Grp NeuroimmunoPed-C. (2022). Impact of COVID-19 in immunosuppressed children with neuroimmunologic disorders. Neurology: Neuroimmunology & Neuroinflammation, 9(1), e1101. https://doi.org/10.1212/NXI.0000000000001101

Oliveira, C. R., Feemster, K. A., & Ulloa, E. R. (2022). Pediatric COVID-19 health disparities and vaccine equity. Journal of Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, 11(Supplement_4), S141-s147. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpids/piac091CrossRef

Otten, M. H., Buysse, C. M. P., Buddingh, E. P., Terheggen-Lagro, S. W. J., von Asmuth, Erik G J, de Sonnaville, Eleonore S V, Ketharanathan, N., Bunker-Wiersma, H. E., Haverman, L., Hogenbirk, K., de Hoog, M., Humblet, M., Joosten, K. F. M., Kneyber, M. C. J., Krabben, G., Lemson, J., Maas, N. M., Maebe, S., Roeleveld, P. P., ..., Dulfer, K. (2023). Neurocognitive, psychosocial, and quality of life outcomes after multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children admitted to the PICU. Pediatric Critical Care Medicine, https://doi.org/10.1097/pcc.0000000000003180

Patel, P. B., & Bearden, D. (2021). Neuropathogenesis of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. Current Opinion in Pediatrics, 33(6), 597–602. https://doi.org/10.1097/mop.0000000000001068CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Penman-Aguilar, A., Talih, M., Huang, D., Moonesinghe, R., Bouye, K., & Beckles, G. (2016). Measurement of health disparities, health inequities, and social determinants of health to support the advancement of health equity. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 22(Supplement 1), S33-42. https://doi.org/10.1097/phh.0000000000000373CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Pfefferbaum, B. (2022). Post-traumatic stress disorder in children in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 61(8), 957–959. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.02.007CrossRef

Poulson, M., Neufeld, M., Geary, A., Kenzik, K., Sanchez, S. E., Dechert, T., & Kimball, S. (2021). Intersectional disparities among Hispanic groups in COVID-19 outcomes. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 23(1), 4–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-020-01111-5CrossRefPubMed

Pumariega, A. J., Jo, Y., Beck, B., & Rahmani, M. (2022). Trauma and US minority children and youth. Current Psychiatry Reports, 24(4), 285–295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-022-01336-1CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Radhakrishnan, L., Leeb, R. T., Bitsko, R. H., Carey, K., Gates, A., Holland, K. M., Hartnett, K. P., Kite-Powell, A., DeVies, J., Smith, A. R., van Santen, K. L., Crossen, S., Sheppard, M., Wotiz, S., Lane, R. I., Njai, R., Johnson, A. G., Winn, A., Kirking, H. L., ..., Anderson, K. N. (2022). Pediatric emergency department visits associated with mental health conditions before and during the COVID-19 pandemic - United States, January 2019-January 2022. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 71(8), 319–324. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7108e2

Rastogi, S., Gala, F., Kulkarni, S., & Gavali, V. (2022). Neurological and neuroradiological patterns with COVID-19 infection in children: A single institutional study. The Indian Journal of Radiology & Imaging, 32(4), 510–522. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0042-1755250CrossRef

Richards, T. N., Schwartz, J. A., & Wright, E. (2021). Examining adverse childhood experiences among Native American persons in a nationally representative sample: Differences among racial/ethnic groups and race/ethnicity-sex dyads. Child Abuse & Neglect, 111, 104812. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104812CrossRef

Rodriguez, N. M., Lahey, A. M., MacNeill, J. J., Martinez, R. G., Teo, N. E., & Ruiz, Y. (2021). Homelessness during COVID-19: Challenges, responses, and lessons learned from homeless service providers in Tippecanoe County, Indiana. BMC Public Health, 21(1), 1657. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-116878CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Rubin, G. J., Amlôt, R., Page, L., & Wessely, S. (2009). Public perceptions, anxiety, and behavior change in relation to the swine flu outbreak: Cross-sectional telephone survey. BMJ, 339, b2651. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b2651CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Saleem, F., Legette, K. B., & Byrd, C. M. (2022). Examining school ethnic-racial socialization in the link between race-related stress and academic well-being among African American and Latinx adolescents. Journal of School Psychology, 91, 97–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2022.01.001CrossRefPubMed

Santos, S., Sá, T., Aguiar, I., Cardoso, I., Correia, Z., & Correia, T. (2021). Case report: Parental loss and childhood grief during COVID-19 pandemic. Front Psychiatry, 12, 626940. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.626940CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Sayed, M. H., Hegazi, M. A., El-Baz, M. S., Alahmadi, T. S., Zubairi, N. A., Altuwiriqi, M. A., Saeedi, F. A., Atwah, A. F., Abdulhaq, N. M., & Almurashi, S. H. (2021). COVID-19 related post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents in Saudi Arabia. PLoS ONE, 16(8), e0255440. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255440CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Semega, J., Kollar, M., Shrider, E., & Creamer, J. (2020). Income and poverty in the United States: 2019. In United States Census Bureau (pp. 60–270). United States Census Bureau. https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2020/demo/p60-270.pdf

Sevelius, J. M., Gutierrez-Mock, L., Zamudio-Haas, S., McCree, B., Ngo, A., Jackson, A., Clynes, C., Venegas, L., Salinas, A., Herrera, C., Stein, E., Operario, D., & Gamarel, K. (2020). Research with marginalized communities: Challenges to continuity during the COVID-19 pandemic. AIDS and Behavior, 24(7), 2009–2012. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-020-02920-3CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Sezer, M., Çelikel, E., Tekin, Z. E., Aydın, F., Kurt, T., Tekgöz, N., Karagöl, C., Coşkun, S., Kaplan, M. M., Öner, N., Polat, M. C., Gül, A. E. K., Parlakay, A. Ö., & Acar, B. (2022). Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children: Clinical presentation, management, and short- and long-term outcomes. Clinical Rheumatology, 41(12), 3807–3816. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10067-022-06350-5CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Shi, Q., Wang, Z., Liu, J., Wang, X., Zhou, Q., Li, Q., Yu, Y., Luo, Z., Liu, E., & Chen, Y. (2021). Risk factors for poor prognosis inchildren and adolescents with COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis. EClinicalMedicine, 41, 101155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.101155CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Shrider, E., Kollar, M., Chen, F., & Semega, J. (2021). Income and poverty in the United States: 2020. In United States Census Bureau (pp. 60–273). https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2021/demo/p60-273.pdf

Smitherman, L. C., Golden, W. C., & Walton, J. R. (2021). Health disparities and their effects on children and their caregivers during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. The Pediatric Clinics of North America, 68(5), 1133–1145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2021.05.013CrossRefPubMed

Sokol, R., Austin, A., Chandler, C., Byrum, E., Bousquette, J., Lancaster, C., Doss, G., Dotson, A., Urbaeva, V., Singichetti, B., Brevard, K., Wright, S. T., Lanier, P., & Shanahan, M. (2019). Screening children for social determinants of health: A systematic review. Pediatrics, 144(4), e20191622. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-1622CrossRefPubMed

Tai, D. B. G., Shah, A., Doubeni, C. A., Sia, I. G., & Wieland, M. L. (2021). The disproportionate impact of COVID-19 on racial and ethnic minorities in the United States. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 72(4), 703–706. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa815CrossRefPubMed

Tai, D. B. G., Sia, I. G., Doubeni, C. A., & Wieland, M. L. (2022). Disproportionate impact of COVID-19 on racial and ethnic minority groups in the United States: A 2021 update. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 9(6), 2334–2339. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-021-01170-wCrossRefPubMed

Toraih, E. A., Hussein, M. H., Elshazli, R. M., Kline, A., Munshi, R., Sultana, N., Taghavi, S., Killackey, M., Duchesne, J., Fawzy, M. S., & Kandil, E. (2021). Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in pediatric COVID-19 patients: A meta-analysis. World Journal of Pediatrics, 17(2), 141–151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12519-021-00419-yCrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Treglia, D., Cutuli, J. J., Arasteh, K., & Bridgeland, J. (2023). Parental and other caregiver loss due to COVID-19 in the United States: Prevalence by race, state, relationship, and child age. Journal of Community Health, 48(3), 390–397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10900-022-01160-xCrossRefPubMed

Vadgama, N., Kreymerman, A., Campbell, J., Shamardina, O., Brugger, C., Consortium, G. E. R, Deaconescu, A. M., Lee, R. T., Penkett, C. J., Gifford, C. A., Mercola, M., Nasir, J., & Karakikes, I. (2022). SARS-CoV-2 susceptibility and ACE2 gene variations within diverse ethnic backgrounds. Frontiers in Genetics, 13, 888025. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2022.888025CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Valenzuela, J. M., Dimentstein, K., Yee, S., Pan, B., Snyder, M. C., & Wolf, R. M. (2023). Psychosocial impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in racially/ethnically diverse youth with diabetes. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 48(1), 17–28. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsac070CrossRefPubMed

Van Dyke, M. E. V., Mendoza, M. C. B., Li, W., Parker, E. M., Belay, B., Davis, E. M., Quint, J. J., Penman Aguilar, A., & Clarke, K. E. N. (2021). Racial and ethnic disparities in COVID-19 incidence by age, sex, and period among persons aged <25 years - 16 U.S. Jurisdictions, January 1-December 31, 2020. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 70(11), 382–388. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7011e1CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Vicetti Miguel, C. P., Dasgupta-Tsinikas, S., Lamb, G. S., Olarte, L., & Santos, R. P. (2022). Race, ethnicity, and health disparities in US children with COVID-19: A review of the evidence and recommendations for the future. Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, 11(Supplement_4), S132–S140. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpids/piac099CrossRefPubMed

Vidal, C., Ngo, T. L., Wilcox, H. C., Hammond, C. J., Campo, J. V., O’Donnell, E., & Ryan, L. M. (2022). Racial differences in emergency department visit characteristics and management of preadolescents at risk of suicide. Psychiatric Services, 74(3), 312–315. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.202100608CrossRefPubMed

Viner, R. M., Mytton, O. T., Bonell, C., Melendez-Torres, G. J., Ward, J., Hudson, L., Waddington, C., Thomas, J., Russell, S., van der Klis, F., Koirala, A., Ladhani, S., Panovska-Griffiths, J., Davies, N. G., Booy, R., & Eggo, R. M. (2021). Susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection among children and adolescents compared with adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics, 175(2), 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.4573CrossRefPubMed

Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.

Walsh, F. (2020). Loss and resilience in the time of COVID-19: Meaning making, hope, and transcendence. Family Process, 59(3), 898–911. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12588CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Wamser-Nanney, R., Cherry, K. E., Campbell, C., & Trombetta, E. (2021). Racial differences in children’s trauma symptoms following complex trauma exposure. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(5–6), 2498–2520. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518760019CrossRefPubMed

Wang, Y., & Beydoun, M. A. (2007). The obesity epidemic in the United States–gender, age, socioeconomic, racial/ethnic, and geographic characteristics: A systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Epidemiologic Reviews, 29, 6–28. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxm007CrossRefPubMed

White, A., Liburd, L. C., & Coronado, F. (2021). Addressing racial and ethnic disparities in COVID-19 among school-aged children: Are we doing enough? Preventing Chronic Disease, 18, E55. https://doi.org/10.5888/pcd18.210084CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Woodruff, R. C., Campbell, A. P., Taylor, C. A., Chai, S. J., Kawasaki, B., Meek, J., Anderson, E. J., Weigel, A., Monroe, M. L., Reeg, L., Bye, E., Sosin, D. M., Muse, A., Bennett, N. M., Billing, L. M., Sutton, M., Talbot, H. K., McCaffrey, K., Pham, H., . . . COVID-NET Surveillance Team. (2022). Risk factors for severe COVID-19 in children. Pediatrics (Evanston), 149(1). https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2021-053418

Worden, J. W. (2018). Grief counseling and grief therapy: A handbook for the mental health practitioner (5th ed.). Springer Publishing Company, LLC. https://doi.org/10.1891/9780826134752

World Health Organization. (2013, May 7). Social determinants of health: Key concepts. https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/social-determinants-of-health-key-concepts

World Health Organization. (2020, December 11). International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems 10th revision (ICD-10)-WHO Version for; 2019-covid-expanded. ICD-10 Version 2019; World Health Organization. https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#

World Health Organization. (2021, October 6). A clinical case definition of post COVID-19 condition by a Delphi consensus. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-2019-nCoV-Post_COVID-19_condition-Clinical_case_definition-2021.1

Xiao, Y., Romanelli, M., Vélez-Grau, C., & Lindsey, M. A. (2021). Unpacking racial/ethnic differences in the associations between neighborhood disadvantage and academic achievement: Mediation of future orientation and moderation of parental support. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 50(1), 103–125. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01319-6CrossRefPubMed

Yang, F., Wen, J., Huang, N., Riem, M. M. E., Lodder, P., & Guo, J. (2022). Prevalence and related factors of child post-traumatic stress disorder during COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review and meta-analysis. European Psychiatry, 65(1), 1–39. https://doi.org/10.1192/j.eurpsy.2022.31CrossRef

Zablotsky, B., & Alford, J. M. (2020). Racial and ethnic differences in the prevalence of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and learning disabilities among U.S. children aged 3–17 Years. NCHS Data Brief, 358, 1–8.

Zhang, G., Rose, C. E., Zhang, Y., Li, R., Lee, F. C., Massetti, G., & Adams, L. E. (2022). Multiple imputation of missing race and ethnicity in CDC COVID-19 case-level surveillance data. International Journal of Statistics in Medical Research, 11, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-6029.2022.11.01CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Zhu, F., & Ang, J. Y. (2022). COVID-19 Infection in children: Diagnosis and management. Current Infectious Disease Reports, 24(4), 51–62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11908-022-00779-0CrossRefPubMedCentralPubMed

Titel: Bio-Psycho-Sociocultural Lens Highlights Racial and Ethnic Inequities in Neuropsychological Outcomes Following COVID-19
verfasst von: Ailyn D. Diaz
Alana M. McNeill
Elizabeth S. Miceli
Jasmin Lagman
Jessica Bonatakis
Meenal Pathak
Publikationsdatum: 26.10.2023
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Erschienen in: Journal of Pediatric Neuropsychology / Ausgabe 1/2024
Print ISSN: 2199-2681
Elektronische ISSN: 2199-2673
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40817-023-00150-8

Leitlinien kompakt für die Neurologie

Mit medbee Pocketcards sicher entscheiden.

^{Seit 2022 gehört die medbee GmbH zum Springer Medizin Verlag}

Kostenlos registrieren

Neu im Fachgebiet Neurologie

Nicht Creutzfeldt Jakob, sondern Abführtee-Vergiftung

29.05.2024 Hyponatriämie Nachrichten

Eine ältere Frau trinkt regelmäßig Sennesblättertee gegen ihre Verstopfung. Der scheint plötzlich gut zu wirken. Auf Durchfall und Erbrechen folgt allerdings eine Hyponatriämie. Nach deren Korrektur kommt es plötzlich zu progredienten Kognitions- und Verhaltensstörungen.

Schutz der Synapsen bei Alzheimer

29.05.2024 Morbus Alzheimer Nachrichten

Mit einem Neurotrophin-Rezeptor-Modulator lässt sich möglicherweise eine bestehende Alzheimerdemenz etwas abschwächen: Erste Phase-2-Daten deuten auf einen verbesserten Synapsenschutz.

Sozialer Aufstieg verringert Demenzgefahr

24.05.2024 Demenz Nachrichten

Ein hohes soziales Niveau ist mit die beste Versicherung gegen eine Demenz. Noch geringer ist das Demenzrisiko für Menschen, die sozial aufsteigen: Sie gewinnen fast zwei demenzfreie Lebensjahre. Umgekehrt steigt die Demenzgefahr beim sozialen Abstieg.

Hirnblutung unter DOAK und VKA ähnlich bedrohlich

17.05.2024 Direkte orale Antikoagulanzien Nachrichten

Kommt es zu einer nichttraumatischen Hirnblutung, spielt es keine große Rolle, ob die Betroffenen zuvor direkt wirksame orale Antikoagulanzien oder Marcumar bekommen haben: Die Prognose ist ähnlich schlecht.

Update Neurologie

Bestellen Sie unseren Fach-Newsletter und bleiben Sie gut informiert.

Newsletter bestellen

Live-Webinar "Urologie und Sexualmedizin in der Praxis"

Springer Medizin

Abstract

Bitte loggen Sie sich ein, um Zugang zu diesem Inhalt zu erhalten

Weitere Artikel der Ausgabe 1/2024

The Lost Years: an Integrative Review of the Mental Health, Educational, and Social Impact of the Pandemic on Children and Adolescents From 2019 to 2022

Neuropsychological Impact of COVID-19 on Children and Adolescents

Special Education Law: How the COVID-19 Pandemic Has Impacted FAPE, Child Find, and FERPA Laws

COVID-19: Transdisciplinary Impact on Children and Adolescents

Neurological and Neuroimaging Implications of COVID-19 in the Pediatric Population