Introduction
Materials and methods
Search strategy
Study selection and inclusion criteria
Data extraction
Study quality assessment
Statistical methods
Results
First author, publication year, country | Study name or description | Study period | Number of participants, sex, age, number of cases | Type of diabetes, subgroup | Comparison | Relative risk (95% confidence interval) | Adjustment for confounders |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Simon KC et al, 2007, USA | Nurses’ Health Study & Health Professionals Follow-up Study | 1976–2000, 22.9 years follow-up 1986–2000, 12.6 years follow-up | 121046 women and 50833 men, age 30–55 years/40–75 years: 530 cases | Diabetes mellitus | Yes vs. No | 1.04 (0.74–1.46) | Age, smoking status, pack-years |
Hu G et al, 2007, Finland | Finland MONICA study | 1972, 1977, 1982, 1987, 1992, 1997–2002, 18 years follow-up | 25168 men and 26384 women, age 26–74 years: 324/309 cases | Type 2 diabetes, all | Yes vs. no | 1.83 (1.21–2.76) | Age, sex (all), study year, BMI, SBP, cholesterol, education, leisure-time physical activity, cigarette smoking status and cigarettes per day, coffee, tea, alcohol |
Type 2 diabetes, men | Yes vs. no | 1.78 (1.01–3.12) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, women | Yes vs. no | 1.91 (1.04–3.52) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, excluding first 5 years of follow-up | Yes vs. no | 1.88 (1.19–2.99) | |||||
Driver JA et al, 2008, USA | Physicians’ Health Study | 1982 – NA, 23.1 years follow-up | 21841 men, age 40–84 years: 556 cases | Type 2 diabetes, all | Yes vs. no | 1.34 (1.01–1.77) | Age, smoking status, alcohol use, BMI, physical activity, hypertension, cholesterol level |
Type 2 diabetes, age < 55 years | Yes vs. no | 1.12 (0.61–2.07) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, age 55–64 | Yes vs. no | 1.57 (1.04–2.38) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, age ≥ 65 | Yes vs. no | 1.25 (0.76–2.05) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, BMI < 25 | Yes vs. no | 1.88 (1.28–2.77) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, BMI 25-<30 | Yes vs. no | 1.14 (0.75–1.72) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, BMI ≥ 30 | Yes vs. no | 0.36 (0.08–1.59) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, no complications | Yes vs. no | 1.63 (1.14–2.33) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, complications | Yes vs. no | 1.10 (0.74–1.64) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, < 5 years duration | Yes vs. no | 7.17 (4.59–11.20) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, 5–9 years | Yes vs. no | 2.03 (1.22–3.36) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, 10–14 years | Yes vs. no | 0.82 (0.42–1.60) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, ≥ 15 years | Yes vs. no | 0.73 (0.45–1.18) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, < 63.7 years at diabetes onset | Yes vs. no | 1.18 (0.78–1.79) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, ≥ 63.7 years at diabetes onset | Yes vs. no | 1.49 (1.04–2.11) | |||||
Palacios N et al, 2011, USA | Cancer Prevention Study 2 Nutrition Cohort | 1992–2005, ~ 11.7 years follow-up | 147096 men and women, age 63.6/62.0 years: 656 cases | Diabetes, all | Yes vs. no | 0.88 (0.62–1.25) | Age, smoking – pack-years, alcohol, caffeine, calories, dairy intake, pesticide exposure, physical activity, education |
Diabetes, men | Yes vs. no | 0.87 (0.57–1.33) | |||||
Diabetes, women | Yes vs. no | 0.90 (0.48–1.66) | |||||
Xu Q et al, 2011, USA | NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study | 1995–1996–2004–2006, ~ 9.5 years follow-up | 288662 men and women, age 50–71 years: 1565 cases | Diabetes, all participants | Yes vs. no | 1.41 (1.20–1.66) | Age, sex, race, education, smoking, coffee, BMI, physical activity |
Diabetes duration | None | 1.00 | |||||
< 10 years | 1.11 (0.89–1.38) | ||||||
≥ 10 | 1.75 (1.36–2.25) | ||||||
Diabetes, excluding participants with heart disease, stroke, cancer, poor/fair health | Yes vs. no | 1.34 (1.06–1.69) | |||||
Diabetes duration, excluding participants with heart disease, stroke, cancer, poor/fair health | None | 1.00 | |||||
≥ 10 | 1.80 (1.25–2.60) | ||||||
< 10 years | 1.00 (0.73–1.38) | ||||||
Diabetes, excluding first five years of follow-up | Yes vs. no | 1.33 (1.00-1.78) | |||||
Pupillo E et al, 2016, Italy | 700 Italian general practitioners | 2013–2013, 1 year follow-up | 923356 men and women, age ≥ 18 years: 194 cases | Diabetes | Yes vs.no | 1.32 (1.18–1.48) | Age, sex, smoking, obesity, alcohol, hypersomnia, cardiovascular disorders, gastrointestinal disorders, genitourinary infections, restless leg syndrome, antidepressants |
Yang YW et al, 2017, Taiwan | Taiwan National Health Insurance Research Database | 2000–2006–2011, 7.4 years follow-up | 145176 men and women, age ≥ 20 years: 1782 cases | Diabetes mellitus, all | Yes vs. no | 1.19 (1.08–1.32) | Age, sex, insurance premium, urbanization level, residential area, type of occupation, comorbidity, flunarizine use, metoclopramide use, zolpidem use, outpatients claim times |
Diabetes mellitus, men | Yes vs. no | 1.29 (1.12–1.49) | |||||
Diabetes mellitus, women | Yes vs. no | 1.12 (0.97–1.30) | |||||
Diabetes mellitus, age 20–39 years | Yes vs. no | 0.52 (0.06–4.50) | |||||
Diabetes mellitus, age 40–64 years | Yes vs. no | 1.15 (0.94–1.41) | |||||
Diabetes mellitus, age ≥ 65 years | Yes vs. no | 1.20 (1.06–1.35) | |||||
de Pablo-Fernandez E et al, 2018, England | English national Hospital Episode Statistics | 1999–2011, NA | 8190323 men and women, age ≥ 25 years: 14252 cases (DM2 only) | Type 2 diabetes | Yes vs. no | 1.32 (1.29–1.35) | Age, sex, calendar year of cohort entry, region of residence, Multiple Deprivation score |
Type 2 diabetes, men | Yes vs. no | 1.27 (1.23–1.30) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, women | Yes vs. no | 1.42 (1.37–1.47) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, age 25–44 years | Yes vs. no | 3.81 (2.84–5.11) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, age 45–64 years | Yes vs. no | 1.71 (1.61–1.81) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, age 65–74 years | Yes vs. no | 1.40 (1.35–1.45) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, age ≥ 75 years | Yes vs. no | 1.18 (1.14–1.21) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, follow-up < 1 year | Yes vs. no | 1.44 (1.37–1.52) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, > 1 year | Yes vs. no | 1.29 (1.26–1.33) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, 1–4 years | Yes vs. no | 1.30 (1.26–1.34) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, 5–9 years | Yes vs. no | 1.28 (1.23–1.33) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, ≥ 10 years | Yes vs. no | 1.32 (1.19–1.46) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, complications | Yes vs. no | 1.49 (1.42–1.56) | |||||
Type 2 diabetes, no complications | Yes vs. no | 1.30 (1.27–1.33) | |||||
Lee SE et al, 2018, South Korea | Korean National Health Insurance database | 2005–2008–2013, ~ 7.1 years follow-up | 14912368 men and women, age ≥ 30 years: 34834 cases | Diabetes, all | No | 1 | Age, sex, BMI, smoking, alcohol, exercise, hypertension, dyslipidemia, end-stage renal disease, peripheral artery disease, glucose, insulin use |
DM without DR | 1.33 (1.29–1.38) | ||||||
DM with DR | 1.75 (1.64–1.86) | ||||||
Diabetes, men | No | 1 | |||||
DM without DR | 1.27 (1.21–1.34) | ||||||
DM with DR | 1.60 (1.45–1.78) | ||||||
Diabetes, women | No | 1 | |||||
DM without DR | 1.39 (1.33–1.46) | ||||||
DM with DR | 1.85 (1.70–2.02) | ||||||
Diabetes, age 30–39 years | No | 1 | |||||
DM without DR | 1.04 (0.62–1.76) | ||||||
DM with DR | 2.09 (0.44–9.99) | ||||||
Diabetes, age 40–59 years | No | 1 | |||||
DM without DR | 1.11 (1.01–1.24) | ||||||
DM with DR | 1.53 (1.23–1.89) | ||||||
Diabetes, age ≥ 60 years | No | 1 | |||||
DM without DR | 1.35 (1.30–1.40) | ||||||
DM with DR | 1.72 (1.60–1.84) | ||||||
Kummer BR et al, 2019, USA | Medicare beneficiaries | 2008–2015, 5.2 years follow-up | 1035536 men and women, mean age 75.9 years: 15531 cases | Diabetes mellitus | Yes vs. no | 1.17 (1.11–1.24) | Age, sex, race/ethnicity, Charlson comorbidities |
Azizova TV et al, 2019, Russia | Mayak Production Association | 1948–1982–2013, 25.5 years follow-up | 22377 men and women, mean age 24.1/27.3 years: 300 cases | Diabetes mellitus, men | Yes vs. no | 1.82 (1.16–2.74) | Age, sex |
Diabetes mellitus, women | Yes vs. no | 1.96 (1.16–3.16) | |||||
Kizza J et al, 2019, China | China Kadoorie Biobank study | 2008–2014 - NA, 11.5 years follow-up | 480950 men and women, age 30–79 years: 521 cases | Diabetes | Yes vs. no | 0.93 (0.67–1.29) | Age, sex, region, income, education, occupation, alcohol, physical activity, smoking, BMI, SBP, DBP |
Rhee SY et al, 2020, South Korea | Korean National Health Insurance Database | 2009–2010–2016, 3.2 years follow-up | 8443351 men and women, age ≥ 40 years: 31577 cases | Diabetes | Yes vs. no | 1.37 (1.34–1.41) | Age, sex, BMI, smoking, drinking, physical activity |
Diabetes | No | 1 | |||||
IFG | 1.04 (1.01–1.07) | ||||||
DM, < 5 years DM, ≥ 5 years | 1.19 (1.14–1.23) | ||||||
1.62 (1.57–1.67) | |||||||
Jacobs BM et al, 2020, United Kingdom | UK Biobank | 2006–2010 - NA, NA | 501682 men and women, age 40–69 years: 1276 cases | Diabetes | Yes vs. no | 1.27 (1.03–1.57) | Age, sex, deprivation, ethnicity |
Sanchez-Gomez A et al, 2021, Spain | The Information System for Research in Primary Care (SIDIAP) | 2006–2018, 7.3 years follow-up | 3104460 men and women, age 40–80 years: 13715 cases | Type 2 diabetes, all | No | 1 | Age, sex, BMI, smoking status, socioeconomic status |
Prediabetes | 1.07 (1.00-1.14) | ||||||
DM2 | 1.19 (1.13–1.25) | ||||||
Type 2 diabetes, men | No | 1 | |||||
Prediabetes | 1.12 (1.03–1.22) | ||||||
DM2 | 1.27 (1.18–1.38) | ||||||
Type 2 diabetes, women | No | 1 | |||||
Prediabetes | 1.01 (0.99–1.10) | ||||||
DM2 | 1.11 (1.04–1.20) |
Subgroup analyses
Diabetes mellitus and Parkinson’s disease | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n
| Relative risk (95% CI) | I2 (%) |
P
h
1
|
P
h
2
| References | ||
All studies | 14 | 1.27 (1.20–1.35) | 82.3 | < 0.0001 | 8–21 | ||
Sex | |||||||
Men | 8 | 1.29 (1.24–1.34) | 31.1 | 0.18 | 0.49/ 0.933 | 9,10,12,14–16,19,21 | |
Women | 7 | 1.31 (1.17–1.47) | 90.3 | < 0.0001 | 9,12,14–16,19,21 | ||
Men and women | 6 | 1.23 (1.12–1.35) | 52.5 | 0.06 | 8,11,13,17,18,20 | ||
Follow-up | |||||||
<5 years | 1 | 1.32 (1.18–1.48) | 0.57 | 13 | |||
5-<10 years | 7 | 1.27 (1.20–1.35) | 89.1 | < 0.0001 | 11,14–17,20,21 | ||
10-<15 years | 2 | 0.91 (0.71–1.15) | 0 | 0.82 | 12,18 | ||
15-<20 years | 2 | 1.36 (0.78–2.37) | 76.7 | 0.04 | 8,9 | ||
≥20 years | 2 | 1.57 (1.13–2.19) | 58.3 | 0.12 | 10,19 | ||
≥15 years | 4 | 1.47 (1.12–1.92) | 60.9 | 0.05 | 0.79 | 8,9,10,19 | |
Excluding early follow-up | |||||||
Yes | 3 | 1.33 (1.18–1.50) | 23.0 | 0.27 | 0.44 | 9,11,15 | |
No | 11 | 1.24 (1.14–1.35) | 85.6 | < 0.0001 | 8,10,12–14,16–21 | ||
Geographic location | |||||||
Europe | 5 | 1.29 (1.19–1.38) | 75.4 | 0.003 | 0.98 | 9,13,15,20,21 | |
America | 5 | 1.20 (1.05–1.36) | 53.9 | 0.07 | 8,10–12,17 | ||
Asia | 4 | 1.31 (1.11–1.55) | 84.3 | < 0.0001 | 14,16,18,19 | ||
Number of cases | |||||||
Cases < 500 | 2 | 1.52 (1.08–2.14) | 75.5 | 0.04 | 0.60 | 13,19 | |
Cases 500-<1000 | 5 | 1.15 (0.90–1.46) | 60.8 | 0.04 | 8–10,12,18 | ||
Cases ≥ 1000 | 7 | 1.27 (1.20–1.35) | 89.1 | < 0.0001 | 11,14–17,20,21 | ||
Parkinson's disease assessment | |||||||
No validation or independent assessment | 8 | 1.29 (1.21–1.37) | 85.3 | < 0.0001 | 0.71 | 13–20 | |
Validated or independent assessment | 6 | 1.25 (1.09–1.43) | 58.8 | 0.03 | 8–12,21 | ||
Diabetes type | |||||||
Any diabetes | 10 | 1.26 (1.14–1.38) | 83.7 | < 0.0001 | 0.72 | 9,10,15,21 | |
Type 2 diabetes | 4 | 1.29 (1.17–1.41) | 81.5 | 0.001 | 8,11–14,16–20 | ||
Assessment of diabetes | |||||||
Self-reported | 4 | 1.34 (1.05–1.72) | 69.8 | 0.02 | 0.58 | 10–12,19 | |
Self-reported and validated | 1 | 1.04 (0.74–1.46) | 8 | ||||
Self-report and medical records or fasting glucose | 9 | 1.26 (1.19–1.34) | 86.9 | < 0.0001 | 9,13–18,20,21 | ||
Timing of diabetes diagnosis | |||||||
Prevalent (baseline) | 10 | 1.31 (1.23–1.40) | 81.8 | < 0.0001 | 0.21 | 9,11–13,15,16,18–21 | |
Prevalent and incident | 3 | 1.17 (1.11–1.24) | 0 | 0.51 | 8,10,17 | ||
Incident (newly diagnosed) | 1 | 1.19 (1.08–1.32) | 14 | ||||
Diabetes duration | |||||||
<5 years | 2 | 1.38 (0.95-2.00) | 83.0 | 0.02 | 0.89 | 10,26 | |
≥5 years | 2 | 1.32 (0.99–1.77) | 66.0 | 0.09 | 10,26 | ||
Diabetes complications | |||||||
Yes | 3 | 1.54 (1.32–1.80) | 89.6 | < 0.0001 | 0.18 | 10,15,16 | |
No | 3 | 1.26 (1.16–1.38) | 86.3 | 0.0007 | 10,15,16 | ||
Study quality, modified NOS scale | |||||||
0–3 stars | 0 | 0.76 | |||||
>3–6 stars | 10 | 1.26 (1.17–1.36) | 72.0 | < 0.0001 | 9,14,16,21 | ||
>6–8 stars | 4 | 1.30 (1.14–1.48) | 92.2 | < 0.0001 | 8,10–13,15,17–20 | ||
Adjustment for confounding factors | |||||||
Age | Yes | 14 | 1.27 (1.20–1.35) | 82.3 | < 0.0001 | NC | 8–21 |
No | 0 | ||||||
Education | Yes | 4 | 1.20 (0.89–1.63) | 75.6 | 0.006 | 0.76 | 9,11,12,18 |
No | 10 | 1.28 (1.20–1.35) | 85.3 | < 0.0001 | 8,10,13–17,19–21 | ||
Alcohol | Yes | 6 | 1.28 (1.13–1.46) | 68.0 | 0.008 | 0.64 | 9,10,12,13,16,18 |
No | 8 | 1.25 (1.17–1.34) | 80.2 | < 0.0001 | 8,11,14,15,17,19–21 | ||
Smoking | Yes | 9 | 1.27 (1.15–1.40) | 82.7 | < 0.0001 | 0.99 | 8–13,16,18,21 |
No | 5 | 1.27 (1.16–1.39) | 83.0 | < 0.0001 | 14,15,17,19,20 | ||
BMI or obesity | Yes | 7 | 1.31 (1.19–1.45) | 84.4 | < 0.0001 | 0.42 | 9–11,13,16,18,21 |
No | 7 | 1.23 (1.13–1.35) | 79.8 | < 0.0001 | 8,12,14,15,17,19,20 | ||
Physical activity | Yes | 6 | 1.29 (1.12–1.50) | 65.8 | 0.01 | 0.40 | 9–12,16,18 |
No | 8 | 1.25 (1.17–1.33) | 79.6 | < 0.0001 | 8,13–15,17,19–21 | ||
Hypertension | Yes | 2 | 1.41 (1.37–1.45) | 0 | 0.72 | 0.20 | 10,16 |
No | 12 | 1.25 (1.17–1.33) | 76.4 | < 0.0001 | 8,9,11–15,17–21 | ||
Serum cholesterol | Yes | 2 | 1.51 (1.12–2.03) | 33.3 | 0.22 | 0.33 | 10,11 |
No | 12 | 1.26 (1.19–1.34) | 84.5 | < 0.0001 | 8,9,12–21 | ||
Coffee or caffeine | Yes | 3 | 1.31 (0.92–1.86) | 75.3 | 0.02 | 0.70 | 9,11,12 |
No | 11 | 1.27 (1.19–1.34) | 84.7 | < 0.0001 | 8,10,13–21 |